NUR390: The Class: Qualitative Research: Qualitative Research: Lesson

Lesson: Qualitative Research

Qualitative Methods

A. Phenomenology
B. Grounded Theory
C. Ethnography
D. Others: Historiography, Aesthetic Inquiry, Hermeneutics

1. Historiography= reconstruction of the past from a critical review of documents, artifacts
   
2. Aesthetic Inquiry=use of photography and artwork, e.g., Ziller and Lewis (1981) who gave cameras to participants and asked them to photograph what they thought they knew; asking people the meaning of photos/artwork.
   
3. Hermeneutics=Martin Heidegger; interpretation of text-Bible, nurse interviews, e.g., the work of Benner ("Novice to Expert") who observed and listed nurses telling their stories of nursing. From the stories she developed paradigm cases to illustrate the five levels of nursing.

1. Sensitizes us to the special experiences of patients needing nursing care.
   
2. The classic example is Fagerhaugh and Strauss (1977) who used grounded theory to look at pain management. From this method they developed a theory about pain interactions and the results were used to sensitize health care workers about dynamics of their role in pain management.

1. Looking at everyday experiences; look at who are or may become patients
   
2. Is more phenomenological, e.g., inner strength of women (Rose, 1990).

1. German philosopher Husserl (1859-1938) was originator of the Phenomenological Movement.
   
2. As a philosophy it grew out of the critique of science as objective and empirical reality apart from ourselves.
   
3. As a philosophy, phenomenology sees the person as part and parcel with the environment-"I shape the world and the world shapes me."
   
4. As a method, phenomenology asks "What is the meaning of one's lived experience?"
   
5. There are several phenomenologists who have created methods that nurse researchers use to collect and analyze data. The most common ones are Spiegelberg (1976), Vankaam (1969), Giorgi (1970) and Colaizzi (1978). I won't go over each one because they have very specific steps. You need to look at their original works.

1. Research questions asked are:
   a. What are the necessary and sufficient constituents of this feeling or experience?
   b. What does the existence of this feeling or experience indicate concerning the nature of the human being?
   e.g. What is the meaning of grieving for families living with AIDS?

1. With sampling you need to find people willing to discuss the experience you are researching. Thus, sampling is purposive.

1. Data is collected a variety of ways: observations, in-depth interviews, videotapes, written description. Analysis begins as soon as you collect data. The outcome is usually a theoretical statement that answers the research question and is supported by quotes.

1. Bracketing is setting aside what you know about the phenomenon already so it doesn't influence your study results.

A. Philosophical orientation

1. Developed by sociologist Glaser and Stauss in 1967.
   
2. "Grounded" means that the theory developed from the questions is grounded or has it roots in the data collected. It is based on symbolic interaction theory (George Herbert Mead, 1934) which explores how people define reality and how their beliefs are related to their actions. People create their reality by attaching meanings to situations (social constructs). Grounded theory is typically used in studying phenomenon we know little about.

1. An example of a question: "How do nurses perceive their role as they work with clients simultaneously utilizing American Indian Healing strategies?"
   
2. Steps in the method occur simultaneously: observe, collect data, organize & theorize. Hold thorough literature review until after data collection, but as data is collected use the constant comparative method to analyze. For example after every interaction the researcher codes data and uses the results to structure further interviews. This is known as multiple-working hypotheses. At the same time researchers use "Memos." These memos are the researcher's notes that indicate the researchers thinking process which then can be compared to categories that emerge from the data.

1. Saturation is key to knowing where you have enough data collected. You start hearing the same things from participants when saturation occurs.

1. The outcome is a theory with an understanding of the Basic Social Processes.

1. observing
   
2. describing
   
3. documenting
   
4. analyzing
   a. Lifeways or patterns of people

1. Usually avoid any use of numbers. However, when judgments of quality are being made counting is occurring, illustrated by phrases such as "frequently," or "more often." This is known as the use of content analysis.

1. See them sometimes almost too early. The trick is to seek more evidence of patterns while remaining open to disconfirming evidence.

1. During analysis, data conclusions seems to "fit" but you need to look at how you arrived at that conclusion through the use of memos, journalizing. Plausibility does not stand alone-you still need systematic analysis.

1. Metaphors suggest a likeness or analogy of one idea in place of another. For example, "I'm up to my ears in work" for heavy work and "empty nest syndrome" for children leaving home. These are powerful images that can be related and create strong feelings. They are also data reducing devices that involve generalizing from the particular, and put patterns into a larger contact-forces researcher and reader to see larger picture.

1. Taxonomy for classifying according to cultural themes

1. Cognitive map illustrates perception

1. Reflex-refers to use of researcher's personality, empathy and the ability to stay open to participant's experience.

1. Credibility-ask the question, "was the study done in such a way that the participant's data were accurately identified or described?" Credibility is really determining: Validity-of Study, which is done by taking results of study back to participants.

1. Transferability-"fittingness," "applicability of, " same concept as generalization in quantitative research. You are asking, " Can the findings be applied to another setting or grouping of people experiencing the same phenomenon?"

1. Audibility-is related to the consistency of qualitative findings(comparable to reliability in quantitative). This is accomplished when another researcher can follow a "decision trail" of the researcher.

1. Confirmability-is the criterion of neutrality in qualitative research (Objectivity). This occurs when credibility, transferability and audibility are established.

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