THE ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY PARADOX First Edition - Outline

Zachary A. Smith

CHAPTER I: ECOSYSTEM INTERDEPENDENCE

Chapter Outline

I. Ecosystems

A. Definition (Interdependency)

B. Levels

l. Individual

2. Populations

3. Communities

4. Whole

C. Examples of Ecosystems and How They Function

1. Spaceship Earth

2. Fresh water body

II. Commoner's Laws of Ecology

A. Everything is Connected to Everything Else

1. Balance may be disrupted by foreign element

(a) drought

(b) waste

B. Everything Must Go Somewhere.

1. Commoner's example: mercury in dry cell

battery

2. Spaceship Earth

C. Nature Knows Best

1. The "watch" analogy

2. Danger of interference

D. No Free Lunch.

1. Costs of interference

III. The Steady State

A. Definition

B. Finite Nature of Resources

IV. Common Pool Resources

A. Garrett Hardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons"

B. Role in Environmental Policy Making

1. Farmers have no incentive to preserve ground

water resources.

2. Manufacturers have no incentives to limit air

pollution activities.

3. Ocean fish harvesters have no incentives to

restrict their activities.

CHAPTER 2: THE PUBLIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS

Chapter Outline

I. Dominant Social Paradigm

A. Definition (values and beliefs)

B. Rooted in Historical Social Values

C. Components

II. Economics and Growth

A. Supply and Demand

B. Influence on Environmental Policy

C. Externalities (costs)

D. Cost Benefit Analysis

E. Substitution

F. Value Free Economics

III. Science and Technology - Our Views of Nature

A. Technology Forcing

B. Manipulation: Approach to Environmental Problems

C. Faith in Science

1. Manipulate nature

2. Has produced dramatic environmental change

3. Has become a new "religion"

IV. Role of Religion

V. History of the Environmental Movement

A. Dominance

1. Environment is viewed as hostile

B. Early Awakening

1. No mass communication

2. Nature writers, artists, poets

B. Early Conservationist

1. First environmentalists - conservationists

planners and preservationists

2. National Park Service established

C. Later Conservationists

1. Roosevelt and Pinchot

2. Resource managers

3. Utilitarianism

4. Developing conflict based on differences of

opinion about conservation

D. The Reawakening

1. 1960s

2. Rachel Carson Silent Spring

3. Environmental "events"

4. Environment becomes a political issue

5. National Environmental Policy Act 1970

6. Earth Day

E. Complacency

1. Decline of public concern

2. Emphasis turns to litigation

F. Little Reagan Revolution

1. Deregulation

2. Reagan's laissez faire policies

3. Catalyst to spark renewed interest

(a) radical action groups

(b) decentralization

(e) new environmentalism

4. Change in character of environmental groups

G. Common Ground

1. Radicals, political mainstream, business

community

2. Interest groups

(a) Truman

(b) Salisbury

VI. Public Opinion and The Environment

A. Shift in Public Attitude Towards More

Environmental

Regulation

B. Reasons for Shift in Attitude

1. Highly publicized problems

(a) Acid rain

(b) Chernobyl

2. Perceived anti-environmentalist attitude of

Reagan Administration

(a) James Watt

(b) Ann Burford

3. No longer an upper-middle class concern

(a) Membership (social make-up) of groups

C. Impact of Public Attitudes on Elections

CHAPTER 3: THE REGULATORY ENVIRONMENT

Chapter Outline

I. The Regulatory Context

A. Regulatory Theory

1. Economic theory of regulation

2. Regulation as political incentive

3. Public interest theory of regulation

II. Science and Risk Analysis

A. Inherent Risk

B. Involuntary Risk

C. Acceptable Levels of Pollution and Risks to

Human Health

1. Delaney Clause of U.S. Food Drug and

Cosmetic Act

D. Three Points to Remember:

1. Analysis is as political as it is

scientific

2. Lack of data or methodology limits risk

assessment

3. There are disagreement as to the harm or risk

associated with any given level of

pollution or exposure to toxic substances

E. Four-nation Study of the Regulation of 2,4,5-T

1. Reveals influence of politics on risk

assessment and resolution

2. Tied to uncertainty in risk analysis process

F. Decision Making Environment

1. OSHA's regulation of exposure to benzene

2. AFL-CIO v. American Petroleum Institute

G. Risk Assessment and Regulated Industry

1. Auto industry

H. Scientific Community, Disagreement Caused by

Existing Uncertainties

1. Studies re: health effects of exposure to

toxic waste dumps

I. Reliance on Science and Technology to Solve

Problems Inherent in Nature of DSP

III. The Role of Government

A. Degrees of Involvement (see graph)

1. American government policy orientation

2. International government policy orientation

B. Utilization of Market Forces

1. EPA's bubble concept

C. Government Intervention at State and Local Levels

D. National Regulation Limited

1. Nuclear power industry

IV. Approaches to Regulation

A. Free Market Option

B. "Standards and Enforcement" or "Command and

Control" System

1. Criticisms

2. Defenses

3. Use of taxes or effluent charges as

incentives to control pollution

C. Privatization of Common Pool Resources

1. Private ownership of U.S. Forests

D. Establishing Private Right to Clean Environment

1. Nuisance doctrine

2. Citizen suit provision

CHAPTER FOUR: THE POLITICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL SETTING

Chapter Outline

I. Pluralism

A. Defined

1. Arthur Bentley, The Process of Government

2. David Truman, The Governmental Process

3. Critics of pluralist theory

(a) Jack Walker and Theodore Lowi

B. Group Types

1. Private-economic interest groups

2. Public non-economic interest groups

3. Private v. public (comparison)

C. Interest Groups and the Policy Cycle

1. Agenda-setting

2. Policy-making

3. Implementation

(a) the RARE example

4. Importance of all three

5. Characteristics of interest groups

(a) size

(b) organization

(d) attracting attention of media

(1) protests

(2) underdog fight

(e) attracting attention of policy makers

(1) conventional

D. Group Resources and Policy Making

1. Public v. private sector policy making

2. Three branches of government

E. Judicial Branch

1. Common law remedies

2. Federal law remedies

3. Standing

4. Disadvantages of judicial remedies

(a) takes time

(b) takes money

goal

F. Legislative Branch

1. Three points to remember:

(a) decentralized

(b) motivated by desire for re-election

G. Executive Branch

1. Federal agencies

2. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

3. Department of Interior

4. Agriculture Department

5. Career bureaucrats

6. Appointed administrators

(a) need informational support

(b) public support

7. Involvement in the implementation process

8. Taking time to attend hearings

9. Money, political support, expertise help with

bureaucrats

H. Incrementalism

1. Summary

2. Practical and political reasons

3. Incremental nature of policy making process

4. Stabilizes process

I. Decentralization

1. Multi-level decision making in government

2. Impacts effectiveness of group activity

J. Short-term Bias

1. Cost factors

2. Constituent demands

3. Re-election goals

4. Human nature to discount the future

K. Ideological Bias

1. Growth and development

(a) land use planning

(b) energy planning

2. Businessmen

(a) favor expanding market

(b) in the most contact with elected

officials

3. Increased energy use equals growth

L. Private Nature of Public Policy Making

1. Unreported activity of legislatures

M. Crisis Planning

1. Incremental nature of decision making

suspended

(a) FDR and LBJ

(b) Three Mile Island

2. Environmental problems are chronic

II. The Regulators

A. National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

1. Enactment

2. Congressional intent

3. Purpose

4. Procedural guidelines to implement NEPA

(a) Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

(b) EIS requirements

5. Council on Environmental Quality

6. Enforcement

(a) Supreme Court Decisions - 3 questions

(1) is and EIS necessary

(2) what EIS should contain

(3) when it should be prepared

(b) interpreting "major"

7. When is an EIS required - 2-step process

(a) prepare environmental assessment (EA)

(b) FONSI

8. Preparing an EIS

(a) whole project must be considered

9. Procedural v. substantive enforcement

B. Environmental Administration

1. Federal, State, local

(a) level of involvement

(b) role of government at each level

(d) regulation or decision making

2. Level preference of interest group

(a) agricultural interests prefer state

level

(e.g., Hawaii)

(b) mining interests prefer state level

(e.g., West Virginia)

level (e.g., refrigerator mfgs.)

(d) automobile industry prefer national

level

C. Environmental Protection Agency

1. Reorganization and consolidation of

environmental administration

2. Nixon in 1970

3. Basic organization

(a) downside of this organization (multi-

media

management)

4. Enforcement responsibility

5. Public criticism re: enforcement

(a) slow development of effluent standards

(b) Superfund

6. Politics of enforcement

(a) bipartisan support

7. Administrations

(a) Ruckelshaus

(b) Reagan era

(d) Lee Thomas

8. EPA relations with interest groups

D. Department of Interior

1. Establishment

2. Responsibilities

3. Enjoys historic existence: interest group

support

system

4. Administrators

(a) Watt

(b) Clark

E. Bureau of Land Management

1. Establishment

2. Unwanted lands

3. Criticisms ("Bureau of Livestock & Mining")

4. FLPMA

5. Non-traditional v. traditional values of

professionals

6. Non-traditional interests

F. National Park Service

1. Establishment

2. Purpose

3. Conflict

4. Public support

5. Primary constituencies

6. Fluctuation in management

7. "Disneyland" mentality (i.e., Yosemite)

G. Forest Service

1. Establishment

2. Constituent groups

(a) resource using

(b) recreational

3. Management principles

4. Most influential groups

H. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

1. Establishment

2. Purpose

(a) most acreage in Alaska

PART II: ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

CHAPTER FIVE: AIR POLLUTION

Chapter Outline

I. Introduction

A. Sources of Air Pollution

II. Components of Air Pollution

A. Carbon Monoxide

B. Sulfur Oxides

C. Nitrogen Oxides

D. Particulates

III. Health Effects

A. Difficult to Establish Direct Links

B. EPA Air Quality Standards

C. Difficult to Regulate, Inexact Scientific Evidence

D. Damage to Crops

E. Lack of Present Incentives\need for Crisis

F. Ford Motor Co. example

G. Problems in Developing Effective Policy

IV. Motor Vehicles

A. Statistics of Automobile Production

B. Hidden Costs

1. Destruction of rubber on cars and equipment

2. Corrosion of stone and iron on bldgs. &

statues

3. Political instability

4. Reduced crop yields

5. Reduced timber production

6. Increased health costs

7. Gas consumption

8. External costs

C. Auto companies Role in Policy Making

1. Lee Iacocca

2. Edmund Muskie

D. Compliance

V. Air Pollution: Law, Regulations, and Enforcement

A. Clean Air Act

B. Historic background of federal participation in

pollution control

C. Deference to states for enforcement

D. Why this is a problem

E. Feds become more involved after 1977 amendments

F. 1970 Act - Uniform national standards

1. Primary standards

2. Secondary standards

G. Primary and Secondary Pollutants

H. Deadlines for Compliance

I. New Source Performance Standards

J. Emission Sources

1. Major or minor

2. Attainment areas v. non-attainment areas

3. New or existing

K. 1977 Act - Established Regions

1. Class I

2. Class II

3. Class III

L. More on Compliance and Enforcement Mechanisms

1. FIPs

2. 1990 Clean Air Act amendments

V. Regulatory Innovations

A. Emission-trading Schemes

1. Netting

2. Offsets

3. Bubbles

4. Banking

B. Goal of Emissions Trading

1. Offset ratio

C. Problems in Administration

1. Careful monitoring of plants

2. Emissions trading market

D. Criticisms by Environmentalists of Emissions

Trading

E. Arguments in Favor of Emissions Trading

VI. Regulatory Issues

A. EPA's Information Sources

B. Problems of Enforcement

C. EPA's Flexibility to Enforce Clean Air Act

1. Discretion - two extremes

D. Major Issues

1. Cost\benefit

2. Common pool management problems

VII. Toxic Air Pollution

A. Definitions

1. Toxic\hazardous

2. As defined by Clean Air Act

B. Few standards, Little Enforcement

1. Asbestos

2. Lead

C. Groups with Few Resources to Influence Policy

1. Children

2. Native American miners

(a) example of weakness of normative

pluralism

D. 1990 Clean Air Amendments

1. Emission standards

2. Ample margins of safety

VIII. Acid Rain

A. How it is Formed\acid Deposition

B. How it is Measured

C. Reduction of Emissions v. Reduction of Acid Rain

D. Long Term Impact

1. Tall smokestacks

E. International Common Pool Management Problem

1. Soviet Union

2. Eastern Europe

F. International Cooperation to Address Acid Rain

G. Lack of Incentives to Curtail Polluting Activities

1. National Acid Precipitation Assessment

Program

IX. Stratospheric Ozone

A. Its Importance

B. Causal Relationship to CFC's

C. Impact of Studies on Policy Makers

1. F. Sherwood Rowland

2. Hole in ozone layer

3. NASA studies

D. Montreal Protocol

1. Not a complete picture

E. International Common Pool Resource Management

X. Greenhouse Effect

A. What Is It

B. Components

C. Impact

1. Flooding seaports

2. Agriculture

3. Animals

D. Deforestation

E. Policy Thus Far

1. "Wait and see"

2. "More study"

3. Incremental decision making

F. Summer of 1988 - Crisis Environment

G. Cost/benefit

H. "Don't Worry, Be Happy"

CHAPTER SIX: WATER POLLUTION

Chapter Outline

I. Introduction

A. No Shortage of Water

B. Water Moves Through a Cycle

1. Rain or snow

2. Percolates

3. Evapotranspiration

C. Freshwater Sources

D. Groundwater Sources

E. Source and Use

1. Function of economy

2. Level of development

3. Type of water resources available

F. Uses in Developed v. Less-Developed Countries

1. Domestic purposes

2. Wastes

II. Pollution Source

A. Point

B. Nonpoint

1. Major problem

C. Municipal Waste Water

1. Three levels of purity

(a) primary treatment

(b) secondary treatment

(1) Truckee, CA - example

D. Clean Water Act Amendments of 1972

1. Treatment of all sewage at secondary level

III. Nonpoint Sources of Pollution

A. Control

B. Agricultural Run-off

C. Urban Storm Water

IV. Groundwater Pollution

A. Threats to Groundwater Quality

B. Future Promises to Be Worse

1. Hazardous waste sites

2. Landfills

3. Can go undetected for years

4. Arizona - example

V. Health Effects of Groundwater Pollution

A. Numerous and Frightening

B. Fraction of Chemicals Tested

C. Bottled Water

D. Determination of Exposure Levels as Much an Art

as a Science

VI. Water Law and Regulation

A. Rivers and Harbor Act, 1889

B. Federal Laws in 1912, 1924, 1948, 1956, 1961 &

1966

C. Fragmentation and Decentralization

1. Important at state and local levels

D. Three Major Water Pollution Laws in U.S.

1. Resource Conservation & Recovery Act (RCRA)

2. Clean Water Act

(a) NPDES

(b) Bethlehem Steel - example

(d) municipal waste water pollution

(1) initially paid by federal

government

(2) as of 1991 full cost paid by local

government

(3) no funds for maintenance

(4) bill for clean-up enormous

(5) eroding tax base

(6) regulation of nonpoint sources

(7) requirements for storm water

discharge

(8) 1986 Reagan veto of Clean Water Act

3. Safe Drinking Water Act

(a) regulates public water supply system

(b) 1986 amendments

(1) citizen suits

(2) injunctive relief

(3) advantages of citizen suits

4. Fragmentation of policy and implementation

overlap

VII. Criticisms of Water Pollution Policy

A. Extent of Impact of Chemicals on Humans

1. Known contaminants not always regulated (TCE)

B. Role of State Governments

1. Unrealistic timetable

2. Lack of resources

3. Groundwater protection

(a) "well head protection areas"

(b) "sole-source aquifer" designation

VIII. Ocean Pollution

A. Vast Dumping Ground

B. Problem Worldwide

1. Japan, Mexico to Hawaii

C. Sources

1. Waste water run-off

2. Nonpoint sources

3. Oil tankers

4. Nonbiodegradeable plastics

D. Prevention

1. In U.S. Clean Water Act

2. Globally problem is different

IX. Paradox in Water Pollution Policy

A. Water Conservation

1. Water is inexpensive

2. Hidden costs

(a) agricultural subsidies

3. Lack of metering

4. Technology

5. Agriculture conservation

6. Paradox

(a) artificially low pricing

(b) distribution

B. Groundwater Use

1. Groundwater mining

2. Agricultural interests

C. Good Laws, Poor Enforcement

1. Lack of resources at all levels of government

2. TCE in Tucson - example

D. Risk Assessment

1. Trend among water managers

2. Risks v. costs

E. Impact of Individual

1. Decrease consumption

2. Proper disposal of household wastes

3. Citizen suits

4. Contact environmental agencies or groups

CHAPTER SEVEN: ENERGY

Chapter Outline

I. History of Energy

A. Industrial Revolution

1. Coal--first major modern environmental crisis

2. Hydropower

3. Growth of petroleum industry

B. Oil and War

1. WWI - overseas development of petroleum

expanded significantly

2. Over production

3. WWII - oil was indispensable

4. Trans-continental pipelines

5. Military-industrial complex

6. Multinationals

C. Role of Personal Consumption

1. Impact of auto on energy policy

2. Automobile stimulated growth

3. Importance of electricity

4. Mass communication and advertising

5. Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) 1934

6. Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)

7. Natural gas

(a) distribution problems

(b) intrastate v. interstate prices

D. OPEC and the Oil Crisis

1. Middle East center of world oil production

2. OPEC formed in 1960

3. Role of Yom Kippur War in crude oil pricing

4. Arab oil embargo 1973

(a) end of cheap, abundant energy

(b) U.S. dependence on foreign oil obvious

5. Increased domestic production--stop-gap

measure

6. Nixon Administration

(a) Project Independence

(b) Watergate and the oil crisis

7. Ford Administration

(a) windfall profits tax bill

(b) most significant energy achievement

8. Carter Administration

(a) National Energy Plan (NEP)

(1) "moral equivalent of war"

(2) American's must make sacrifices

(3) COET attacked by special interests

(4) Natural Gas Act

(5) greatest energy saving aspect

failed

to pass Congress

(b) PURPA

(d) "second oil shock"

9. Reagan Administration

(a) free markets satisfy all energy needs

(b) oil glut

E. Development of Nuclear Power

1. Panacea for solving energy crisis

2. Atomic Energy Act of 1946

3. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC)

4. Uncertain future

(a) Price-Anderson Act of 1957

5. Private Ownership of Special Nuclear Fuels

Act

6. Environmentalists concerns boost nuclear

power

7. 1973 energy crisis opportunity to promote

nuclear energy

8. Three Mile Island and decline of nuclear

power industry

F. Development of a National Energy Policy

1. Presidential failure to develop a

comprehensive energy plan

2. Pattern was crisis management

3. Bush and invasion of Kuwait

II. Non-Renewable Energy Sources

A. Coal

1. Most harmful

2. Most abundant in U.S.

3. Other costs of coal

4. Lack of strip mining enforcement

B. Oil

1. Environmental problems

(a) auto emissions

(b) groundwater pollution

(d) Exxon Valdez - example

C. Natural Gas

1. Cleanest burning fossil fuel

2. Transported as liquid natural gas

(a) highly explosive

D. Geothermal Energy

1. Non-polluting

2. Perpetual source

3. Most U.S. sources found in the West

E. Nuclear Power

1. Environmental problems

(a) nuclear meltdown

(b) mining & storage of nuclear fuels

2. Consider entire nuclear fuel cycle

(a) radiation

(b) mishaps in transportation & storage

III. Renewable Energy

A. Hydropower

1. Advantages

(a) cheap electricity

(b) longevity

2. Disadvantages

(a) flooding

(b) ruined spawning grounds

(d) impact on aquatic species

(e) earthquakes

(f) damage to soil fertility

(g) breeding grounds for malaria, etc.

3. Small scale hydro power

4. No new dams since 1976

5. Important energy source in less developed

countries

B. Solar Power

1. Passive

2. Active

3. Photovoltaic (PV) effect

(a) communication industry

(b) consumer products

4. Environmental impact

(a) hazardous wastes

(b) use large amounts of land

C. Wind Power

1. Rapid growth

2. Obstacles

(a) lack of economical means to store

electricity

(b) requires back-up from utility co.

(d) excessive noise & TV interference

(e) interfere with migratory birds

D. Biomass

1. Waste products v. special crops

2. Sources

(a) wood

(b) crop residues

(d) corn to ethanol

IV. Conservation and Energy Efficiency: Suggestions for the

Future

A. Three Energy Strategies to Meet Shortfall of

Fossil Fuels

1. Subsidies removed

2. Barriers to conservation removed

3. Price of energy should reflect cost to

society

B. Institutional Barriers

C. Affect of Market Forces on Conservation

1. Oil crisis of 1973 & 1979

2. Conservation's image of deprivations

3. Efficiency and economic success

D. Conservation in Homes and Buildings

1. Retrofitting

2. Energy efficiency in new buildings

(a) super-insulation

3. Smart buildings

4. Windows

5. Other energy saving measures

(a) planting trees

(b) condensing furnaces

(d) lighting

6. Short term costs v. long term savings

7. Cash bonuses v. fines

8. Education

E. Conservation in Transportation

1. Largest drain on oil reserves

2. Acceptance of mass transit

3. External costs of autos

4. Hidden subsidies of autos

5. Hidden costs of autos

6. Some solutions

F. Conservation in Industry

1. Shift to more service industries

2. Cogeneration

3. Problems of less developed countries

G. Obstacles to Conservation

1. Instability of price of oil

2. Lack of appropriate taxes

V. Ecological Conclusions

A. Illusion of Security

B. Overshooting the Earth's Carrying Capacity

C. Transition to Renewable Energy

1. Slow and gradual v. abrupt

CHAPTER EIGHT: TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS WASTE

Chapter Outline

I. Solid Waste

A. What is Solid Waste?

1. Natural systems

(a) disruption

2. Definition (not precise)

(a) municipal waste

(b) agricultural waste

3. Fragmented laws on waste focus on either:

(a) where it is discharged

(b) where it comes from

(d) the characteristic of the waste

B. Scope of Problem

1. 50,000 lbs. per capita every year in U.S.

2. Most from mining or agriculture

(a) 13,000 lbs/person/year in U.S. from

non-coal mining

(b) 2 billion tons/year in agricultural

waste

3. Municipal waste 300 million tons/year in U.S.

(b) managerial and political problems

waste than other developed countries

4. Lack of landfill space

5. Toxic leaks

(a) New York City's Fresh Kills landfill

6. Improper disposal leads to disease

C. Disposal Methods

1. Dumping

(a) open burning

(b) ocean dumping

draining, cover with soil)

(d) most landfills do not meet the ideal

2. Incineration

(a) fastest growing method in U.S.

(b) preferred method in Europe

3. Ocean dumping

(a) discontinued in most coastal cities

(b) still occurring in some large cities

D. Regulations

1. Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965

(a) only advisory

(b) state & local government responsible for

waste disposal

2. Resource Recovery Act of 1970

(a) hands off federal approach

(b) provided financial assistance

3. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

1976

(a) created regulations for management of

municipal waste

(b) requires state solid waste management

plans

4. Failure of state laws to restrict interstate

disposal

E. Solutions

1. Best long term solutions are expensive

2. Crisis situation has produced action

(a) recycling

(b) incineration for energy

(d) taxes

3. Recycling

(a) major drawbacks

(b) unfavorable tax structure

4. Bottle laws

(a) benefits

(b) opposition

5. LULU's

(a) location

(b) technology exists for acceptable

landfills

(d) crisis situation forcing long-term

policy

6. Role of dominant social paradigm

(a) U.S.--throw away society

(1) packaging

(b) changes are occurring

II. Hazardous Wastes

A. Toxic Pollution Affects You

1. 8 out of 10 in U.S. live near source of toxic

waste

2. found throughout the earth

B. Nature of the Problem

1. Numerous sources of toxic pollutants

(a) energy development

(b) agriculture

2. Found in air, water, and soil

3. Uncertainty of production and disposal of

waste

4. 130 - 400 million metric tons annually

5. Only 10% handled safely

6. Benefits of chemicals v. costs of future

7. Over 7 million chemicals known to man

(a) many are potentially hazardous

(b) production up from 7 to 250 million tons

8. Problems in regulation

(a) lack of knowledge

(b) latency effect on humans

(d) small doses are potent

(e) resist biological breakdown

C. Disposal Methods

1. Illegal disposal

2. Underground injection

(a) in theory, cheap and safe method

(b) drinking water pollution

3. Ocean dumping

(a) more serious than oil spills

(b) effect on the food chain

4. Incineration

(a) most promising long-term solution

(b) high temperature destroys some

pollutants

(d) incineration at sea

(1) environmental opposition

(2) problems

5. Export to other countries

(a) high cost of disposal in U.S.

(b) less environmental restrictions

(d) willingness of less developed countries

(e) Intent to Export filing with EPA

(f) agreement between Mexico and U.S.

(g) problems in Western Europe

6. Microbiotic breakdown as a solution

(a) promising for pesticides and solvents

(b) cost less than other methods

D. Federal Regulations

1. Toxic Substance Control Act; the Federal

Insecticide, Fungicide & Rodenticide Act;

and, The Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act

(a) all regulate chemicals used commercially

(b) manufacturers conduct safety tests

(1) amount of substances to be tested

(2) costs

2. Clean Air Act; Clean Water Act, Occupational

Safety & Health Act (OSHA); Safe Drinking

Water Act

(a) regulate toxins in the environment

(b) risk assessments by federal government

3. RCRA and Superfund

(a) most important laws

(b) RCRA

(1) permits required by EPA

(2) fines and criminal liability

(1) joint fund for clean-up

(2) liability for clean-up

(3) inadequate funds for clean-up

(4) a question of success

(d) both laws plagued by inadequate

resources

(e) example of legislation with no funds

E. Regulation Problems

1. Public objection to sites

2. Insurance and liability

3. Cost of disposal

4. Lack of incentives

5. Industry and state positions--greatest

problem

(a) "out of sight out of mind"

(b) lack of knowledge

6. Costs of cleaning sites

(a) high cost of disposal created two

effects

(1) booming hazardous waste disposal

business

(2) "midnight dumping"

7. Easy to circumvent regulations

8. Organized crime

(a) illegal disposal methods

(1) abandoning drums

(2) spilling liquids on highways

(3) mixing toxics with fuel oil

(4) burying tanker trucks

(5) pouring liquid into mine shafts,

sewers, rivers and streams

9. Time Magazine poll of public support

10. LULU of a LULU

11. Where are hazardous waste sites placed?

(a) poor neighborhoods

(b) race most discriminating factor

(1) Barry Commoner

12. Two related problems of implementation

(a) hazardous waste insurance

(b) bankruptcy

(1) Supreme Court decision

13. Industry does not take regulations seriously

(a) EPA Criminal Enforcement Division

F. The Policy Paradox in Hazardous Waste Management

1. Why not more waste reduction at the source?

(a) two assumptions:

(1) inevitable byproducts of industry

(2) focus on disposal once generated

(b) disincentives for waste reduction

2. True costs are eventually paid

(a) by future generations

(b) by public

3. Longer we wait, greater the costs

4. Paradox of Superfunds liability provisions

5. Full enforcement of Superfund & RCRA

impossible

(a) timetables and deadlines difficult to

meet

(b) lack of industry compliance

6. Regulations, economics, politics, and risk

assessment

(a) effects of Reagan Administration

(1) elimination of EPA Enforcement Div.

(2) voluntary compliance by industry

(3) limit role of federal government

(4) revise exposure levels

(5) not what industry wanted

7. What you can do about toxic wastes

(a) have water supplies tested

(b) have an epidemiological study done

CHAPTER NINE: LAND MANAGEMENT ISSUES

Chapter Outline

I. Local Land Use Planning

A. Land Use Planning is Contrary to Our DSP

B. Lack of Planning in Major Cities in U.S.

1. Growth fueled by freeways and federally

guaranteed mortgages

2. Traffic problems

C. DSP and Informal Incentives Influence Land Use

Decisions

1. Comprehensive plans

2. Zoning

3. Issuance of variance

4. Large projects "kicked upstairs"

(a) "quiet revolution"

5. U.S. Supreme Court on zoning

6. Guy Beneveniste's 4 basic types of planning:

(a) trivial

(b) utopian

(d) intentional

D. Planning is a Political Process

1. Issuance of a variance

(a) requires proper strategy

2. Zoning ordinances

3. Four types of urban designations

(a) residential

(b) commercial

(d) special use

4. Intent of land use planning

(a) preserve quality of life

5. Some mixing is unavoidable

6. Zoning decisions made by:

(a) planning commissions

(b) zoning boards

7. Re-election influences decisions

8. High stakes in zoning

E. Summary

1. Decisions made by politicians

2. Past does not bind us to the future

(a) impact of organized citizens

(b) impact of individuals on community

II. Soil Erosion

A. Threat to Agricultural Productivity

1. Dependent on quantity and quality of soil

B. Soil Erosion--defined

1. lacks "crisis" quality

2. Difficult to mobilize policy makers

3. Six billion tons in U.S. per year

C. Agricultural Production v. Perception of Erosion

1. Increased use of fertilizers

2. Farming marginal cropland

D. Soil Conservation Service

1. Provides technical assistance

2. No authority

E. 1985 Farm Bill

1. "Sod-buster" provision

2. Long-term projections

3. Dealt with at local level

III. Farmland Conversion

A. Farmland v. Metropolitan Areas

1. Converted at 2 - 3 million acres per year

2. DSP affects land conversion

(a) primacy of markets

(b) individual enterprises

3. Metropolitan areas cannot be converted back

to farmland

(a) argument of some economists

(b) argument of the Ehrlichs

4. Williamson Act of California

1. Property tax relief to farmers

2. Temporary measure

IV. Desertification

A. Definition

1. 225 million acres in U.S.

2 Not a "crisis" situation

B. Problem Internationally

1. Less-developed countries

C. Lack of Support From Farmers

1. Threat to livelihood

2. Investments = increased productivity

D. Threat to Our Ability to Produce Food

E. Benefits of Organic Farming

1. Reduce soil erosion

2. Meet domestic food needs

3. Reduce oil imports

F. Paradox

1. Incentives for policy makers

V. Federal Land Management

A. Make-up of Federal Lands

1. One-third of continental U.S. (700 mill

acres)

2. One-fourth of nations coal

3. Four-fifths shale oil deposit

4. One-half U.S. uranium, oil, & gas deposits

5. One-half of nation's softwood timber

6. Livestock grazing

B. Major Federal Land Management Agencies

1. Bureau of Land Management (BLM)

2. U.S. Forest Service

3. National Parks Service

4. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

C. Policies Reflect Pluralistic System

D. Multiple Use

1. Variety of activities

2. Statutory basis for multiple use

(a) U.S. Forest Service Multiple Use

Sustained Yield Act of 1960

(b) BLM's Classification & Multiple Use Act

of 1964

1976

(d) Goals provide for activities such as:

(1) forestry

(2) mining

(3) grazing

(4) hiking and camping

(5) wilderness preservation

3. Question of possibility or desirability

4. Criticisms

(a) management discretion

(b) reflects institutional bias

5. Evidence of shift in clientele base

(a) decrease in grazing

E. Timber Management

1. Multiple use results in conflicting policies

2. Criticisms

(a) income of timber sales v. cost of mgmt.

(b) economists argue:

(1) taxpayer subsidy to wood industry

(1) road development prevents

protection

3. Sustained yield

4. Impact on wildlife

5. Privatization

6. "Let it burn" (Yellowstone)

VI. Wilderness

A. Controversial Land Use Issue

1. Precludes use of land for other purposes

2. Removes it from multiple use management

B. Wilderness Act of 1964

1. Attributes of a wilderness area

(a) affected primarily by forces of nature

(b) opportunities for solitude

(d) may also contain other features

2. Over 80 million acres as of 1964

3. "primitive areas" (USFS)

4. Motives of USFS for preservation

(a) hold on to the land

5. Pressure on USFS to release lands

(a) champion of the wilderness

6. "pure wilderness"

(a) land not within sight and sound of

civilization

(b) would result in limited wilderness

C. Endangered American Wilderness Act of 1987

1. Established wilderness in areas not

designated by USFS

D. Roadless Area Review & Evaluation (RARE)

1. RARE-1 recommended 12 million wilderness

2. Conservationists criticisms

(a) "rocks and ice" plan

(b) Sierra Club court challenge

3. RARE-2 recommended 15.4 million wilderness

(a) 10.6 million for further study

(b) 36 million for timber harvesting, etc.

4. Carter Administration

(a) wilderness grew to 12.4 million

(b) Alaska National Interest Lands

Conservation Act of 1980

(1) additional 56 million acres

5. Ninth District Court of Appeal ruling 1983

6. Reagan Administration

(a) In 1983, threw out RARE-2

(b) Started RARE-3

7. wilderness process completed state by state

E. Mining Claims in Wilderness Areas

1. development "substantially unnoticeable"

2. Watt first to approve

3. future issues

F. Bureau of Land Management & Wilderness Areas

1. Federal Land Management Policy Act of 1976

(a) required BLM to inventory lands for

wilderness designation

2. Criticisms of BLM

(a) poor management of Western range lands

(b) wilderness is not highly valued in BLM

(d) not protecting lands considered for

wilderness

G. National Park Service

1. Hands off policy towards land management

2. Criticisms

(a) ignoring past human intervention

(b) parks are not closed ecosystems

(1) encroachment

(1) dam construction

(2) sewage and chemical run-off

(3) oil and gas

(4) uranium mining

(5) power plant developments

3. Problems

(a) budget cutbacks

(b) increased visitors

4. Politics

(a) little controversy

(b) directors share Park Service philosophy

(1) for park acquisition

(2) endangered species protection

(3) not given a free reign under Reagan

(4) proposed radical change in mgmt

(5) policy was not carried out

5. Wilderness disputes on state by state basis

(a) main actors

(1) resource users

(2) environmental groups

6. Future conflict of issues

(a) water rights

(b) demands of hikers

VII. Endangered Species

A. Global Species Loss

1. 5 - 30 million species on earth

2. Extinction rate = one species per day

3. Species preservation important to humans

(a) drugs

(b) future benefits

4. Upset natural balance of world ecosystems

5. Species endangered by:

(a) hunting

(b) habitat destruction

B. Ocean Fish and Mammals

1. International waters

2. Whales and fish hunted to extinction

C. Convention of International Trade in Endangered

Species and Wild Fauna and Flora

1. Prohibits hunting or capturing of 700 species

2. Part of Endangered Species Act in U.S.

3. Enforcement is imbalanced

D. Endangered Species Act of 1973

1. Example of nonincremental policy

2. National Marine Fishery Service

(a) identify endangered and threatened

marine species

3. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

(a) identify endangered species in U.S. and

abroad

4. Endangered--definition

5. Threatened--definition

6. Status based on biology not economics

7. Species may not be bought or sold

8. Species may not be harassed or killed

9. Controversy

(a) impact on federal land development

(1) Tellico Dam v. snail darter

(b) Endangered Species Committee

and economic values

(1) Congress unaware of consequences

(2) environmentalists feared backlash

(d) other projects delayed

E. Fishery Conservation and Management Act

1. prevents over-harvesting of fish

F. National Wildlife Refuge System

1. Primary responsibility for endangered species

in the United States

(a) through management of wetlands

(b) most U.S. species in National Wildlife

Refuge System

2. Controversy

(a) multiple use allowed with no guidelines

(1) hunting and trapping

(2) timber cutting

(3) farming and grazing

(4) mineral development

(5) recreational activity

(b) Reagan administration

(1) encouraged resource development

3. Water and air quality problems

G. State of Hawaii

1. 99% of animals and 95% of flowering plants

in Hawaii only found there

2. Extensive loss of species

(a) deforestation

(b) urbanization

CHAPTER TEN: INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Chapter Outline

I. Population and Food Production

A. Carrying Capacity

1. Definition

2. Explosion-die off sequences

3. Humans have overshot carrying capacity

(a) intensified agriculture

(b) concentrated housing

B. U.N. Population Projections

1. 6.1 billion in 2000

2. 8.1 billion in 2025

3. Most growth in less developed countries

(LDCs)

C. Fertility Rates

1. Replacement rate

D. Population Sustaining Capacity

1. 65 countries in year 2000 unable to feed

people

E. Decline of World Food Production

1. Africa

2. Latin America

F. What is World's Carrying Capacity?

1. 1 person for each acre of arable land

2. minimum capacity 8 billion

3. 15 billion projected for 2045

G. What Does This Mean?

1. Julian Simon

2. Paul and Anne Ehrlich

3. Depends on what numbers are examined

H. Few Scholars are Optimistic

1. Environmental stresses are leading us to

starvation

I. "Demographic Transition" - Frank Notestein

1. Three stages:

(a) high birth and death rates

(b) low death rates and high birth rates

2. Industrial world has made transition from

second to third stage

3. LDCs remain in second stage

4. Leaders of LDCs may not notice the "trap".

5. DSP of LDCs contributes to trap

(a) religion

6. LDCs are reluctant to take advice

7. Assistance emphasizes non-renewable

development

(a) road building

(b) mineral extraction

8. Not sustainable development such as:

(a) agriculture

(b) renewable forestry

9. Assistance in food transfers

(a) self-sufficiency is important

(b) natural resources may be exhausted first

J. Steady State After the Crash

1. Humanity will survive

K. Paradox

1. Recognition of the problem with few solutions

L. What Can You Do?

1. Eat non-processed or low-processed foods

2. Become a vegetarian

3. Eat more chicken or fish

II. Desertification and Food Production

A. Affects All Continents

1. Greatest impacts in Africa

B. Involves Many Problems

1. Social

2. Cultural

3. Political

4. Ecological

C. No Simple Solutions

1. Not viewed as a "crisis"

2. Activities are essential to live

III. Global Pollution

A. The Ozone Layer

1. Increase in global CFC production

2. Effects of ozone depletion

(a) skin cancer

(b) upset ocean food chain

3. Necessitates international cooperation

(a) already occurred

B. The Greenhouse

1. Atmospheric conditions altered by humans

2. Carbon Dioxide levels of 550 ppm

3. Effects of global warming

(a) world coastal flooding

(b) erratic food production

4. Strategies to reverse the effects are not

available

IV. Deforestation

A. Related to greenhouse effect

1. Reforestation reduces atmospheric carbon

dioxide

2. Deforestation 10 times greater than

reforestation

3. Most occurs in LDCs

4. Prospects for ending not encouraging

5. Termites = methane gas

V. Ocean Pollution

A. Requires International Cooperation

B. Forms of Pollution

1. Sewage and industrial pollution in Coasts

2. Waste water from municipal treatment plants

3. Municipal sludge

4. Agricultural runoff

5. Oil pollution

(a) cleaning and loading tanks

(b) accidents

VI. Less Developed Countries: North vs. South

A. LDCs play a vital role in global environmental

management

B. Environmental Problems of LDCs

1. Deforestation of tropical rainforests

(a) speeds global warming

(b) species extinction

(1) fuel

(2) grazing land

(3) cultivation

(4) settlement

(d) causes threats to:

(1) sustainable agriculture in LDCs

(2) air quality

(e) question of survival

(f) economic incentive system

C. Colonization

1. European colonizers exploited resources

2. Exploitation continues today

(a) toxic waste dumping

(b) banned pesticides

D. Model of Development for LDCs Detrimental to

Ecosystem

1. World Bank projects

(a) emphasize technology over sustainability

2. Short-term gains long-term costs

VII. International Conflict

A. LDCs Future Will Determine Our Future

B. Global Security and World Peace

1. Stockholm Conference 1972

(a) disagreement between LDCs & developed

countries

(1) economic growth

(2) increased industrial pollution

(b) U.S. prescribing a medicine it has

failed to take itself

2. Recognition of need for environmental

protection

3. LDCs will not have future access to resources

C. Lifestyle changes for Developed World

1. Auto travel

2. Beef consumption

3. Pets

D. Increased Pressure on Politicians

1. Conflict & exploitation of poor by rich

E. Real Security

1. Funds from military to sustainable

development

F. Paradox

1. Crisis situation

G. Solutions Require Money and Organization

1. Money is there

2. Incentives & institutional framework is not

CHAPTER 11: INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Chapter Outline

I. Introduction

A. Environmentalism is a dominant political force

globally

B. Green Movements

1. Ideology

2. Policy proposals

C. Industrial Democracies

1. Standards and enforcement

2. Consultation\negotiation

II. Alternative Political Systems

A. "Mixed Economy"

B. Collective Ownership Systems

C. Capitalist

D. Market Based Economies

1. Capitalist nations

(a) profit motive

(b) private control of production

(1) corporate power over people

(2) corporate power over politicians

and public policy

(3) big bureaucracy

E. Collective Ownership Systems

1. State controls how and what is produced

2. Production not limited by social institutions

3. Freedom of worker replaced by orders of state

F. Soviet Union

1. Failure to meet consumer needs

2. Priority focused on industrial power

(a) few pollution controls

(b) high consumption of fossil fuels

3. Nature is viewed as a source for raw

materials

4. Local governments have little power

5. Glasnost

(a) pollution control strategies discussed

publicly

(b) Nizhni Tagil crisis

6. Perestroika

(a) will worsen environmental problems

7. Effects of Chernobyl disaster

(a) change in values

(b) reorganizing economic activity

8. Realignments of Soviet bureaucracy needed

(a) enforcement of environmental laws

lacking

G. Eastern Europe

1. Growth of ecological movements

(a) Poland

2. Pollution problems

(a) air pollution

(b) water pollution

H. China

1. Harmony with nature vs. economics

2. No pollution control policy

3. New attitudes about the environment

(a) Forestry Act & Law on Envirn. Protection

4. Obstacles to solving pollution

(a) large country

(b) lack of compliance

(d) land use policies

(e) erosion problems

5. Positive approach to cleaning environment

(a) formal legal system

6. Lack of technology and finances

I. Environmental Problems in Both Systems

1. Product and profit drives nations

2. Perpetual growth

III. International Environmental Management

A. United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) 1972

1. Problems have worsened

B. Common Pool Resources

1. Air

(a) lack of incentives to limit pollution

2. Ozone depletion and greenhouse effect

C. International Government Organization (IGO)

1. Created from crisis

2. Participants decide on procedures and rules

3. Participants agree on compliance &

enforcement

4. Depends on mutual consent of all parties

5. Decisions are made through consensus

(a) this requires sacrifices

6. Free-rider problem

7. Enforcement

(a) violators must be identified

(1) sovereignty and access questions

(b) means of enforcement

(1) negative or positive sanctions

(2) equity issues

8. Will crisis be dealt with in time?