PERSPECTIVES: GEOGRAPHY

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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Key Points for each Section and Perspectives editor introducations to each article follow the Table of conents)

Section 1 - The Changing Physical Environment: Are We to Blame?

The Rising Seas, David Schnieder, Scientific America, March 1997 (pp112-117)

Ice Cap Shows Ancient Mines Polluted the Globe, Malcolm Browne, The NY Times, December 9, 1997 (p.F7)

Preserving the Atmosphere as a Global Commons, Marvin S. Soroos, Environment, March 1998 (pp.7-13 and 32-35)

Claws, Jim Doherty, Smithsonian, October 1997 (v.29, pp.47-55) [Maine's lobster industry]

Section 2 - Landscapes and Culture: Does Place Still Matter?

Geography Redux: Where You Live is What You Are. The New York Times, March 21, 1998 (pp. B1 and B7)

Nation Building: Singapore's Psyche, Ben Dolven, Far Eastern Economic Review, August 20, 1998 (pp.36-37)

Israel at 50: After Zionism, anonymous, The Economist, April 25, 1998

Europe: the Grand Illusion, Tony Juft, The New York Review of Books, July 11, 1996 (pp.6-8)

'Whose Land?' Divides Ranchers and Aborigines. Ruth Walker, Christian Science Monitor, May 13, 1998 (p.7)

'Hispanics' Don't Exist, Linda Robinson, US News & World Report, May 11, 1998 (pp.26-32)

Breaking New Ground (Quebec), Mary Janigan, Macleans, August 31, 1998 (p.18)

The New North: A Younger Generation Remakes the Map of the Canadian Arctic, Jennifer Hunter, Maclean's, August 3, 1998 (p.14)

Section 3 - Economic Restructuring and Globalization: How Sustainable?

Modern South's Emergence: A Frontier Economic Growth, Joseph T. Nolan, Vital Speeches, January 1, 1998 (v.64, #6, pp.171-175)

The Locations of Wal-Mart and Kmart Supercenters: Contrasting Corporate Strategies, Thomas O. Graf, The Professional Geographer, 1998 (v50, #1, pp.46-57)

A Mexican Town that Transcends All Borders, Deborah Sontag. The New York Times, July 21, 1998 (pp.1 and B6)

Worldbeater, Inc., anonymous, The Economist, November 22, 1997 (pp.92-93) [Multinational companies]

The Millennium: New Centuries, New Patterns, Jean Pierre Lehmann, The World Today, January 1998 (pp.7-10)

Section 4 - International Conflict: Can the U.S. Lead?

What's Wrong with America: Open Season on Uncle Sam, John Carlin, The Independent (London), May 10, 1998 (reprinted in World Press Review, September 1998, pp.8-9).

Russia and the West: Still most awkward partners, anonymous, The Economist, May 9, 1998 (pp.21-3)

Iran's Nuclear Puzzle, David A. Schwarzbach, Scientific America, June 1997 (pp.62-5)

Saddam Hangs On: Lessons of an Unfought War, Ignacio Ramonet, La Monde Diplomatique (Paris), March 1998 (reprinted in World Press Review, month/year??, p.??)

India-Pakistan: Still a Cold War, Maleeha Lodhi, The World Today, May 1998 (pp.133-136)

Why is a Free Kosovo Ruled Out? Melanie McDonagh, New Statesman, August 7, 1998 (p. 22.)

Balkans Twist: 'Greater Albania'. Justin Brown, Christian Science Monitor, July 22, 1998 (Vol. 90, Issue 166, p. 1.)

Section 5 - The Developing World: Lessons Learned and Lost?

How Not to Develop and Emerging Nation, Rashmi Mayur and Bennett Daviss, The Futurist, January-February 1998 (v.32, #1, pp. 27-31)

Doubling of World Population Unlikely, Wolfgang Lutz, Warren Sanderson and Sergei Scherbov, Nature, June 19, 1997 (v.387, pp. 803-5)

Africa's Future: Green Revolution Seeks a New Hue, Howard LaFranchi, The Christian Science Monitor, August 26, 1997 (p.6)

Hardscrabble: Where the Hunger season is a Part of Life, Barbara Crossette, The New York Times, August 16, 1998

Globalisation: Expelled from Eden, anonymous. The Economist, December 20, 1997 (pp.35-38)

Hong Kong: Transition back to China, Gregory H. Chu, Focus, Fall 1997 (pp.1-8)

The Cyberspace "War of Ink and Internet" in Chiapas, Mexico, O. Froehling, The Geographical Review, April 1997 (v.87, #2, pp.291-307)

Section 6 - Tourism and Recreation: Will Leisure Dominate the 21^st Century?

Indian Gaming in the US: Distribution, Significance and Trends, Dick G. Winchell, John F. Lounsbury, and Lawrence M. Sommers, Focus, Winter 1997 (pp.1-10)

Lancaster County, Pennsylvania's Heritage Tourism Initiative: A Preliminary Assessment, Gary Hovinen, Small Town, May-June 1997 (pp.4-11)

The Changing Face of the Pacific Northwest, Thomas Harvey, Journal of the West, July 1998 (v.37, #3, pp.22-32)

American Microbreweries and Neolocalism: "Ale-ing" for a Sense of Place, Wes Flack, Journal of Cultural Geography, Spring/Summer 1997 (v.16, #2, pp.37-53)

Sun, Fun & Rum Deal: Perspectives on Development in the Commonwealth Caribbean, Robert B. Potter and Sally Lloyd-Evans, Focus, Winter 1997 (pp.19-26)

Tourism: Outward Bound, Pamela Yatsko and Rodney Tasker, Far Eastern Economic Review, March 26, 1998 (pp.66-7)

SECTION KEY POINTS and ARTICLE INTRODUCTIONS

SECTION 1 - The Changing Physical Environment: Are We to Blame?

Key Points

- Humans are closely tied to natural events, both as the receipient of unwanted natural catastrophes and as agents causing environmental change.
- Human time scales mask the great diversity that the earth has experiences over the course of its geologic history.
- The conflict between exploiting and managing natural resources is delicate, as it involves balancing human livelihoods with natural systems that we do not always fully comprehend.
- Possibly the greatest obvious impact that the human species has had on this planet is the reduction of biological diversity.
- Difficult decisions lie ahead at the international, national and personal levels if humankind is to avert the environmental destruction that the earth is currently headed towards.

Overview

Humankind is intimately related to the natural environment in which we live. This is true, despite the considerable effort we make in trying to overcome environmental limitations. Included among these efforts are the houses and buildings we construct, the transportation systems we have created, and the use of fossil fuels and technology to keep us cool in the summer and warm in the winter. Nature, however, is extremely complex. It operates in its own time and through cyclical rhythms that we barely comprehend. Seemingly extreme weather phenonmena, such as the 1997-98 El Niño event, may not be extreme at all when viewed from the perspective of centuries and eons. Mean Sea level changes of a hundred of more feet have occurred many times over the geologic history of the earth.

However, from our scale of as humans who live a fixed length of time and achieve only a rather small size (in comparison to the earth), these events can be devastating. This situation is further exacerbated by the apparent influence we are having on our weather, climate, and surface geology (including water resources). We daily burn vast quantities of fossil fuels, returning to the atmosphere materials that took millions of years to accumulate and consolidate under the ground. We drain ground water and divert surface water, and thereby change the structure of the earth and soils that underlie both settled cities and unsettled farm fields and open spaces. And we engineer mountains out of our way, rivers into channels, and turn forests into monocultural woodlots, all of which have homogenized our ecosystems leading to both a quantitative and qualitative loss of plant and animal species.

The articles in this section present of a range of issues related to the physical environment, with an emphasis on the relationship between human activity and natural phenomena. Sometimes we are powerless in the face of the wrath of mother nature. At other times we are unwittingly contributing to the destruction of resources that the we depend on for a quality existence. Sometimes we know what we are doing, and at other times we can only guess. Typically, however, the problems are more complex than we can even begin to imagine. Suggestions for resolving some of the environmental predicaments we face are also a part of the articles in this section. Many of these solution are intensely debated, as each solution presents its own range of obstacles and uncertainties.

A ray of hope exists in that scientists today know far more about the world and how it works than ever before. And geographers, particularly those in the fields of geomorphology (focusing in areas such as groundwater), climatology (studying global warming), and biogeography (examining biodiversity), are working with human geographers (for example in environmental policy analysis) and other scientists to better understand and address the earth's complex environmental problems.

1) The Wrath of El Nino, Shannon Brownlee and Laura Tangley, US News & World Report, October 6, 1997.

For most of 1997 and 1998 virtually every environmental catastrophe was blamed on the El Nino climate phenomenon. This natural periodic event demonstrates just how unpredictable and devastating natural fluctuations in our environment can be. Or are these truly natural? Can we (or should we try) to conquered and tame mother nature?

2) The Rising Seas, David Schnieder, Scientific America, March 1997.

Major changes in sea level are 'normal' from the perspective of geologic time. However, from the perspective of human time such changes, whether up or down, can be disastrous. While sea levels have probably been rising at about 2 millimeters a year over the past few decades, predicting their future course what is proving extremely complicated. What are the implications of an uncertain future sea level for low-lying coastal communities and regions?

3) Ice Cap Shows Ancient Mines Polluted the Globe, Malcolm Browne, The NY Times, December 9, 1997.

The mining and smelting of metalic ores has been a key feature in the development of humankind from a more simple to a more complex society. Recent evidence from Greenland demonstrated the importance of these activities in Roman times, and their contribution to atmospheric pollution on a global scale. How might climatologists in some distant future interpret the pollutants of our contemporary society?

4) Preserving the Atmosphere as a Global Commons, Marvin S. Soroos, Environment, March 1998.

The air we breath knows no boundaries, and all of the people, plants and animals that live on earth rely on and contribute to it. The greatest threat to this shared resources is atmospheric pollution caused by humans. We will all suffer if nations cannot agree on an effective law of the atmosphere (similar to the law of the sea) to define our relationship to this shared resources. Can economic development and prosperity increase and spread without polluting the air that we breath?

5) Claws, Jim Doherty, Smithsonian, October 1997.

Ocean fishing grounds throughout the world have been in steady decline, including those in Maine, due to largely to overfishing. Maine's lobster industry, however, has seen a small revival in recent years, although the survival of the cultural landscape of fishing may be more in doubt. Is it more important to save a biological resource or a cultural way of life?

SECTION 2 - Culture and Ethnicity: Does Place Still Matter?

Key Points

- Geography as an academic discipline and way of viewing the world has expeirenced a resurgence in recent years as the conflict between globalization and localization has become more apparent.
- Societies and cultures are socially constructed (or created), sometimes consciously and purposefully, sometimes as a result of seemingly random history events, but always against the background of place and geography.
- For many people, land and place ownership is more than simply legal ownership, but is also related to cultural identity.
- Ethnic diversity is real, and despite an apparent globalization and homogenization of culture, ethnic groups in distinct places are increasingly taking control of their own destinies.

Overview

Geographers have a deep interested in the visual landscape and the character of the places that humankind creates wherever they settle. Geographers have argued that place matters because the natural environment provides opportunities which human culture can use to create successful communities. Beyond that each community develops its own sense of place that influences the character of the people it produces. In this way, place-based cultures form and are distinguished from one another based upon their traditions, livelihoods and worldviews.

The modern world, with its global pop-culture, is sometimes seen as a force working against the creation and preservation of local cultures and landscapes. McDonalds restaurants are amazingly similar whether in Cincinnati or Hong Kong. In this face of this internationalization of culture, some governments, such as the examples from Singapore and Israel, purposely seek to develop a sense of place identity at the national level. The biggest barrier to such efforts lied at the opposite extreme: the cultural divisions that exist within countries. Europe is facing this problem as it seeks to become form a union of very diverse cultures. Within countries such as Australia and the US, the problems of ethnic diversity seem to continuously arise in sometimes old and sometimes new forms, but always requiring attention.

Meanwhile, technology, globalization and humankind move advance forward creating new and different worlds. Those who argue that geography and place no longer matter see a world is becoming the same everywhere and everywhere connected. Communities no longer exist in places, but exist globally -- tied together through the Internet. Personal values are no longer constructed by local culture, but are selected by individuals from a global menu of options. These are strong arguments. And the fascinating thing is that they are all taking place at the same time as the old place-based joys and struggles are also continuing. It certainly makes for interesting times for the cultural geographer.

6) Geography Redux: Where You Live is What You Are, Patricia Cohen, The New York Times, March 21, 1998.

Location matters, and despite a half century of neglect, the discipline of has been growing steadily and contributing to our understanding of the diversity of cultures and environments spread over the Earth's surface. Where we live influences the opportunities and constraints we face, our belief systems and world views, and our socialization. How does where you live shape who you are?

7) Nation Building: Singapore's Psyche, Ben Dolven, Far Eastern Economic Review, August 20, 1998.

Despite enormous economic successes, Singapore's population is still searching for a distinct national identity, or sense of place. In a bold effort to give citizens an emotional stake in the country, Singapore's government has launched a history education program for its people. Why is a strong national identity so important for a relatively young, independent state? Can a state government succeed at generating a sense of place for its people?

8) Israel at 50: After Zionism, anonymous, The Economist, April 25, 1998.

This article discusses Israel's accomplishments throughout its first 50 years of statehood, as well as the challenges that will test its future. While the Arab-Israeli peace process has dominated international news, one survey revealed that Israelis are more concerned about internal conflict than about conflict with the Arab nations. Most important is the tension between Zionism and Orthodoxy, between Church and State. What is Zionism? How did Zionism succeed in building the nation-state of Israel, and what is its future?

9) Europe: the Grand Illusion, Tony Juft, NY Review of Books, July 11, 1996.

Perhaps it is ironic that many European nations and ethnic groups are at once struggling to maintain their own national identities while attempting to build a European Union. What are the chances that the unification of Europe will continue, despite the diverse social, economic, and cultural circumstances of modern-day Europe? In this article Tony Judt examines the challenges facing the new EU. What is the grand illusion that Judt refers to?

10) 'Whose Land?' Divides Ranchers and Aborigines, Ruth Walker, Christian Science Monitor. May 13, 1998.

Land disputes between colonizing powers and indigenous populations are common throughout the world, and even Australia is no exception. With the Australian wool industry in decline, farmers are attempting to diversify by gaining irrigated farmland along two major rivers. The Australian government will not allow this agricultural restructuring to occur, however, until Aborignal land rights are settled. A social rift is consequently developing between white farm communities and Aborigines. Why does this issue present a particular challenge for the Australian government to overcome? Is there a way to pacify both parties involved?

11) 'Hispanics' Don't Exist, Linda Robinson, US News & World Report, May 11, 1998.

Not since Mexico lost the northern two-fifths of its territory to the U.S. in the Mexican-American (1846-48) has the influence of Latin cultures been as pronounced as it is today in 'Anglo' North America. However, to stereotype all Latinos as being of a single culture is both narrow and wrong. The American landscape and society will change, when one in four are of Hispanic ancestry B but different places will change in different ways. How will America's relations with Mexico, the Caribbean and Central American countries change as the Hispanic population grows?

12) Breaking New Ground (Quebec), Mary Janigan, Macleans, August 31, 1998.

The French-speaking citizens of Quebec have long debated the issue of secession from the rest of Canada. In a major ruling, the Supreme Court of Canada rules in 1998 that Quebecers could not unilaterally vote to create their own country. The courts discussion of this issue raises issues that relate to the independence movements of minority populations throughout the world. Under what circumstances would the secession of Quebec be legitimate? Who, ultimately, decides issues like this?

13) The New North: A Younger Generation Remakes the Map of the Canadian Arctic, Jennifer Hunter, Maclean's, August 3, 1998.

In April 1999, Canada will create a new province, Nunavut, in its far north, as a way of resolving land disputes withe the indigenous Inuit people who live there. Unlike the traditional North American model, this is not just a 'reservation', but a full-fledged province, making it a new and bold model for oppressed minority populations everywhere. But is Canada creating another Quebec situation in its far north?

SECTION 3 - Globalization and Economic Restructuring: How Sustainable?

Key Points

- Economic development is not an exact science, and regions and countries are constantly faced with a need to restructure themselves in order to successfully compete in a global marketplace.
- In a largely free-market economy, the decisions of individual companies seeking financial success can have profound impacts on the development experiences of specific places and regions.
- Borders are increasingly transport in the increasingly global economic world, although the location of multinational companies is still an important factor in their pattern of globalization.
- The coming millennium will likely produce major changes in the world's economic and political structure.

Overview

The world often seems to be in a constant state of change. Yesterday's rules may not apply today. Because so many people's jobs, savings and well being are at stake, such societal changes are often most apparent in the economics of regions, countries and the world. The US was almost an economic basketcase a couple of decades ago, but today its economy is the envy of the world (at least it has been this way through much of the 1990s.) Similarly, the American South and Midwest both went through periods of serious economic decline, but are now beginning to be shining stars on the American scene. How have these restructured themselves to meet the needs of today's global economy? And how has Wal-Mart been able to come out of the Southern state of Arkansas to be the leading retailer in the world? While it is easy to describe these developments in retrospect, it is far harder to prescribe a formula for others to repeat their success. Nevertheless, these case studies offer a glimpse of the changing dynamics of the globalizing economy, in general, and the American economy in particular. As the economic geographers knows, location matters, as it always has, although the distinctive advantages of location have shifted as the American economy has shifted to a post-industrial era. And how well will the American economy (or any other) compete in the coming millennium when the situation changes yet again and countries such as China realize their full economic potential?

Globalization exhibits itself in a variety of ways, some more cultural, others more economic. Economic migrants have been a globalizing force through their economic distribution of income and through the cultural pipelines they create between disparate countries. Politics and money also come together in globalization, and many of the traditional core-periphery relationships that exist between dominant developed and dependent developing countries can still be seen with this new global systems model. The Mexican and Australian articles demonstrate some of these patterns. However, as interesting as these cultural and political phenonema are, it is the multinational or transnational company (MNC or TNC) that receives much of the credit (and blame) for globalization, and which have drawn much of the focus of economic geographers in recent years. Do they transcend the limitations of the nation-state? Or are they simply arms of economic imperialism and neo-colonialism? No matter how these questions are answered, the simple fact remains that almost the entire globe is intertwined in a shared economic system, and soon the division between the MNC and the local shop down the street may be more illusion than reality.

14) Modern South's Emergence: A Frontier Economic Growth, Joseph T. Nolan, Vital Speeches, January 1, 1998.

Once a region of seemingly insurmountable social and economic problems, the New South of today is both a an economic growth engine and a popular Sunbelt destination for people and companies seeking better opportunities. The mainstreaming of the old South was not always easy and, along with the progress, some of both the good and bad of the old South may soon be lost forever. How has the media, in all its formed, shaped the image of today's New South?

15) The Locations of Wal-Mart and Kmart Supercenters: Contrasting Corporate Strategies, Thomas O. Graf, The Professional Geographer, 1998.

Mass production and mass consumption offers low cost and convenience, even in a post-industrial society that is dominated by services and retailing. When low cost becomes a common denominator, the old real estate adage of location, location, location demonstrates the importance of geography in shaping success and failure in a highly competitive marketplace. How has the American retail landscape changed as a result of supercenters and similar discount outlets? Will supercenter retailing result in the ultimate collapse of smaller, non-chain grocery and retail stores?

18) A Mexican Town that Transcends All Borders, Deborah Sontag. The New York Times, July 21, 1998.

Despite the increasing march toward globalization and 'placelessness', all humans continue to be, more or less, attached to place. This article provides an encouraging example of how attachment to place can help to maintain strong community ties. Even though 2,500 of Chinantla's 5,000 Mexican residents have immigrated to New York City over the course of five decades, Chinantla is still considered 'home' to those who migrated to New York City. As a mark of community pride, three generations of 'Chinantlans' in New York send much of their earnings to Chinantla and participate in annual festivals there. Still, how has American popular culture changed the lives of the immigrant families?

19) Worldbeater, Inc., anonymous, The Economist, November 22, 1997.

Multinational and transnational companies represent the antithesis of the sustainable development model. While successful due to the scale and scope of their activities, they can also be exploitative of people and countries who are in a weak position. MNCs and TNCs benefit from working beyond a single countries geographic borders, creating a new international geography of commerce. Who should be responsible for company regulation and oversight in the new borderless geography created by MNCs and TNCs?

20) The Millenium: New Centuries, New Patterns, Jean Pierre Lehmann, The World Today, January 1998.

Does it matter that we are approaching a new century and a new millennium? Looking back on history, Dr. Jean-Pierre Lehmann proposes that the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were defined not by the calendar but by significant historic events. In some ways, the West has already entered into the 21^st century. What of China's perspective on the millennium? Why is it important not to ignore the Chinese perspective?

SECTION 4 - International Conflict: Can the U.S. Lead?

Key Points

- Increasing globalization of culture, economy, and communication makes it less likely that the United States can realistically ignore regional conflicts elsewhere on earth.
- The Cold War between the United States and Soviet Union is now history. However, numerous developing nations are gaining nuclear capabilities, meaning that the geography of the Cold War may be shifting instead of diminishing.
- If the United States maintains the role of global police force and world leader, American citizens must improve their understanding of foreign cultures, perspectives, logic, and ideals.
- The West, including the United States and European nations, does not officially support the unification of dispersed ethnic groups in the Balkans, such as the Serbs or Albanians.

Overview

If the political struggles of Russia, the former Yugoslavia, India, Pakistan, Iraq, and all of Europe have one thing in common, it is the involvement and interest of the United States. Some claim that the United States maintains the responsibility to police the world, while others would like to see less U.S. involvement abroad and more interest in domestic affairs. Is it realistic, however, to expect the United States to return to an isolationist political agenda as we approach the new millenium? From a geographical perspective, the United States is much less isolated from the rest of the world than it was a century ago. The increasing globalization of the economy, communications, transportation, and even culture, has arguably brought the geopolitical interests of the United States much closer to the affairs of nations half a world away. For instance, a potential nuclear arms race between India and Pakistan reflects not only a shifting geography of the Cold War, but also an international conflict that could affect everyone on Earth. Further, the continuing war and ethnic cleansing in the former Yugoslavia is now argued to be a global, rather than regional, concern.

If the United States continues to promote its global leadership role in the next century, it will be imperative for Americans to learn more about the cultures, values, and histories of other nations. As global leader, a responsibility rests with U.S. politicians and all citizens to understand and appreciate international conflicts from non-American perspectives. Overall, Americans know little of global geography, culture, and history compared to the people of many other nations who know much more about America. Can the United States effectively lead the world into the next millenium if its own people and leaders do not understand the perspectives of nations abroad?

21) What's Wrong with America: Open Season on Uncle Sam, John Carlin, The Independent (London), May 10, 1998 (reprinted in World Press Review, September 1998).

What make the U.S. different from other places in the world? As the world's only remaining superpower, Americans seldom hear, and even less listen to or heed, criticisms from beyond their borders. However, major difference exist in the world view of the U.S. and even its closest relations, the British. What are the advantages and disadvantages of being the world's only remaining superpower?

22) Russia and the West: Still Most Awkward Partners, anonymous, The Economist, May 9, 1998.

Since the end of the Cold War, Russia has been variously viewed as a new ally of the United States and Europe. Do Russians feel the same way? Lacking a strong view of its place in the world, Russia's relationship with the West must also be viewed from the Russian perspective. This article discusses the complexities of the Russian-Western relationship which is still considered to be a 'work in progress', and highlights challenges that must be overcome before Russia can become a 'natural ally' of the West. Can such challenges be overcome in a Russia where the concepts of democracy and free enterprise are still very new?

The geography of the Cold War has shifted. While tensions between the two traditional players in the nuclear arms race have diminished, the threat of nuclear weapons continues in the form of emerging nuclear programs in developing nations. Since 1992, Iran has pursued a nuclear power program difficult for westerners to understand. This article addresses this question: why would a country with enormous reserves of fossil fuels be interested in nuclear power? Is Iran actually on track to developing a nuclear bomb? What are Iran's geopolitical goals, both regionally and globally? Should the West simply look the other way?

24) Saddam Hangs On: Lessons of an unfought war, Ignacio Ramonet, La Monde Diplomatique (Paris), March 1998 (reprinted in World Press Review, month/year??, p.??)

This article explains some of the complex international relationships and perspectives with regard to the often simplified spat between the United States and Iraq. Recent conflicts over U.N. weapons inspections in Iraq should teach the world three lessons. To understand these lessons is to begin to understand the persistent conflict from a variety of perspectives. Should the Arab nations be blamed for sympathizing with Iraq? Does the United States have solid credibility regarding its stated intentions, and how do Israeli-U.S. relations figure into the picture?

25) India-Pakistan: Still a Cold War, Maleeha Lodhi, The World Today, May 1998.

Apart from the Middle East, South Asia is perhaps the world's most daunting challenge to the promotion of peace. The threat to international peace is being made more difficult by the newfound nuclear capabilities of India and Pakistan. Dr. Maleeha Lodhi explains the historical and geographical background of the India-Pakistan conflict and the potential implications of the next Cold War. How does Kashmir play a role in the ongoing conflict?

26) Why is a Free Kosovo Ruled Out?, Melanie McDonagh, New Statesman, August 7, 1998.

The ethnic Albanian majority of Kosovo, the southern Province of Serbia, voted overwhelmingly to seek independence after the dissolution of Yugoslavia in 1991. Argued here is that Kosovar leaders have no incentive to negotiate with the Serbs for independence, however, because the West is adamantly opposed to an independent Kosovo. Consequently, the growing Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) is fighting a ground war with the Serbs in an effort to gain independence by force. Why is the West so intent on preventing Kosovo's independence? Is the West actually responsible for encouraging the KLA's war against the Serbs?

27) Balkans Twist: 'Greater Albania', Justin Brown, Christian Science Monitor, July 22, 1998.

When Albania became an independent state after 1913, numerous ethnic Albanian populations still existed in nearby Montenegro, Kosovo, and Macedonia. As Kosovo's Liberation Army (KLA) now fights for Kosovo's independence from Serbia (Kosovo's population is 90 percent ethnic Albanian), there is increasing interest in uniting all ethnic Albanians within a 'Greater Albania'. Does history repeat itself so quickly? NATO was forced to intervene with bombing missions when Yugoslav President Slobodan Milosevic attempted to create a 'Greater Serbia' in 1995. Will a 'Greater Albania' ultimately succeed, or will it meet the same fate under NATO?

SECTION 5 - The Developing World: Lessons Learned and Lost?

Key Points:

- Mass industrialization and modernization has not provided the most effective means to improve the quality of life in developing nations. More culturally sensitive and local-oriented methods are being sought for a more sustainable development model.

- While global population is apparently not growing as fast as once believed, some regional population growth patterns still present significant challenges.

- Future development of seed for expanded agricultural yields must take into account the adverse soil and climate conditions of developing nations, as well as the ability of peasant farmers to utilize them.

- Local economies and cultures in the developing world are being forced to deal with the various impacts of increasing globalization.

- Booming industrial development in Indonesia and other developing nations is not only leading to environmental crises, but to social conflict as well.

Questions:

- How and why has industrial development fallen short of its original projected achievements in the Developing World?

- Despite the news that global population may not be increasing as fast as once predicted, why does the concern of "overpopulation" still exist?

- What was the shortcoming of the original Green Revolution, and how might the next Green Revolution be different?

- What are the root causes of famine and malnutrition in Africa, and why isn't drought the sole culprit?

- For what reasons are banana growers in the Caribbean beginning to flounder, and what are their options for the future?

- Why did Britain not challenge the Chinese government when China announced that Hong Kong's 99-year lease would not be renewed?

- What have been the environmental and social costs of rapid economic development in Indonesia since the 1960s?

- How has the internet expanded global awareness of previously local and regional issues and conflicts?

Overview

What kinds of images and descriptions do the terms Third World or Developing World evoke? Americans often associate the developing world with starvation, hunger, political instability, poverty, famine, drought, and so on. Unfortunately, such descriptions are not entirely inaccurate. Still, geographers and others who study developing nations are striving to educate Americans about the deeper realities of nations belonging to the developing world, including the root causes of their challenges. Following World War Two, Americans and Europeans began to pay increasing attention to issues of global poverty and malnutrition. Generally, it was assumed that technology and modernization would significantly diminish global poverty and overpopulation in so-called "traditional" and "backward" societies. Modernization theorists saw agricultural mechanization, hybrid seeds, and urban industrial development as the answer to feeding a rapidly growing world population.

Since the 1970s and 1980s, however, critics have argued that modernization theory is a Euro-centric point of view because it does not consider the cultures and histories of the developing societies themselves. Furthermore, poverty has yet to be eradicated, and the population continues to grow. Today, many geographers claim that the root causes of global poverty and underdevelopment must be thoroughly understood before any attempt is made to solve these persistent problems. Dependency theorists, including many geographers, point to a strengthening geographical relationship and interdependency between a dominant core (developed world) and a struggling periphery (developing world). Such a relationship involves the continued exploitation of the Third World by the First. Have the modernization philosophies and agendas of the United States and Europe actually intensified the underdevelopment and impoverished conditions of Third World nations?

Perhaps most importantly, students who strive to learn more about the developing world soon realize that not all is negative as the popular media often portrays. Many cultures and economies throughout the global periphery are unique and vibrant, and much can be learned from their diverse ways of life. In fact, researchers are looking increasingly to the developing world for "new" approaches to sustainable agriculture, social viability, and community cohesion - cultural and economic attributes which are arguably on the decline in the United States and elsewhere.

29) How Not to Develop and Emerging Nation, Rashmi Mayur and Bennett Daviss, The Futurist, January-February 1998.

Developing countries strive for mass industrialization, but many find mass disappointment. As we move into a post-industrial and post-modern world, diffuse and small-scale enterprises may provide a more sustainable development model. What will it take for people in both developing and developed economies to recognize the role of sustainable development in creating more liveable communities and societies?

30) Doubling of World Population Unlikely, Wolfgang Lutz, Warren Sanderson and Sergei Scherbov, Nature, June 19, 1997.

People, people everywhere, and more are on the way. While the data presented here indicates that global population will probably not double soon, the projected growth in many parts of the world is troubling, to say the least. And what are we going to do with all those old people? How can we provide to meet the needs of a population that will to continue to increase and age within most of our lifetimes with our current dwindling resources?

31) Africa's Future: Green Revolution Seeks a New Hue, Howard LaFranchi, The Christian Science Monitor, August 26, 1997.

While the initial Green Revolution sought to expand crop yields world-wide through the development of high yielding varieties of seeds (HYVs), only wealthy farmers could often afford new seeds every year and their required inputs. As the world's population continues to grow, a new Green Revolution is needed, according to one Ethiopian leader. This time, the challenge is to make the HYVs more accessible to peasant farmers and more adaptable to adverse soil and climate conditions. Can the mistakes, in retrospect, of the first Green Revolution be avoided in the future?

32) Hardscrabble: Where the Hunger season is a Part of Life, Barbara Crossette, The New York Times, August 16, 1998.

Why does much of Africa's population experience a poor quality of life, hunger, and malnutrition? This article reveals that the popular notion of overpopulation does not account for Africa's 'hunger season'. Instead, peace, democracy, stability, grass roots efforts, and a non-corrupt government are all requirements for success throughout Africa. In light of the views presented here, do you think that overpopulation is a reasonable explanation for world poverty?

33) Globalisation: Expelled from Eden, anonymous, The Economist, December 20, 1997.

After decades of protection from Europe, the banana growers of the Caribbean must readjust themselves in a new world market. This article explains how changes in global trading rules and a new consumer interest in the 'perfect' banana are causing the local economies of some Caribbean islands to flounder. How are islanders adjusting to the new economic realities of globalization? Was colonialism here merely in the name of exploitation? Finally, should the residents of these islands be blamed for shifting to the cultivation of illegal drugs?

34) Hong Kong: Transition back to China, Gregory H. Chu, Focus, Fall 1997.

Why did the British government give up their most prosperous colony to China in 1987? Gregory Chu argues that one must understand the historical and geographical settings of Hong Kong and the relationship between Britain and China to answer this question. How has the human and physical geography of China changed since 1898 when Britain obtained Hong Kong as a colony? The answers to that question will help explain why Britain did not challenge the Chinese government when it announced that the 99-year lease would not be renewed.

35) The Cyberspace "War of Ink and Internet" in Chiapas, Mexico, O.?? Froehling, The Geographical Review, April 1997.

The Mexican state of Chiapas exhibits typical characteristics of the developing world, including a wealthy urban minority and a marginalized, rural population. Still, the internet played an important role in generating international support of the Zapatista uprising that occurred there in 1994. In this article Oliver Froehling describes how the internet allowed a localized conflict to become a global cause. Was this actually a 'Netwar,' as some have described? Does the globalizing effect of the internet have a strong impact on state and local decision making? What role will the internet play in future military conflicts and wars?

SECTION 6 - Tourism and Recreation: Will Leisure Dominate the 21^st Century?

- Leisure and Tourism represent the largest industries in the world and will continue to grow as we enter the 21st century.

- Gambling, or "gaming," is expanding its role in the American leisure industry, and numerous Native American tribes are using gambling facilities to achieve economic development.

- The economic and social costs and benefits of tourism are becoming more important to determine as communities and nations around the globe re-orient themselves to attract visitors.

- Developing nations are increasingly turning to tourism to supplement their industrializing economies. Unfortunately, tourism does not always afford a means to achieve sustainable economic and social development.

Questions

- How and why has gambling become increasingly acceptable in American society, and what role have Native Americans played in the proliferation of gambling facilities nationwide?

- What have been some of the negative local impacts of mass tourism in Lancaster County, and what new methods are being used to curb such impacts in the future?

- Why is the rural Northwest becoming more popular as a tourist destination, and how are smaller communities adjusting to the region's new popularity?

- What is the trend for microbreweries in the United States, and what factors are responsible for the trend?

- For what reasons does growing tourism activity in the Caribbean represent both a blessing and a burden for Caribbean peoples?

- What factors are contributing to the recent boom in Chinese tourism, and is that boom likely to persist into the 21st century?

Overview

By some measures tourism has become the world's largest industry. People worldwide are traveling more than ever before. Several factors largely explain why tourism has become a major socioeconomic activity throughout the world, including the greater availability of disposable income for travel, improvements in transportation, increased global business travel, higher education and awareness of other places, and an overall increase in average leisure time. In the United States the largest cities and smallest towns are now orienting themselves to visitors as the traditional manufacturing and extractive industries continue to decline. What are the economic and social costs and benefits of this new booming industry? Proponents point to the ability of tourism to revive ailing local economies and to promote cultural awareness, both in domestic travel and abroad. Developing nations are attracting more tourists from the United States and Europe. Ecotourism is gaining popularity as more people wish to experience unique natural environments while escaping the hectic life of the city. Will the tourism industry dominate global economics of the 21^st century?

As with other more traditional industries, tourism has its costs as well as benefits. Tourism may create numerous new jobs through the development of tourist-related businesses, but such jobs are often dead-end and low-paying jobs for part-time workers with no benefits. Many such jobs are only available during the tourist season, and families cannot support themselves on these jobs alone. Further, are Americans gaining a realistic perspective of Caribbean cultures when they travel to Jamaica? In the developing world, resorts catering to foreign tourists are often operated by American or European-owned multinational corporations. The visitors often remain isolated from the realities around them, instead seeing only smiling and well-dressed employees who put the best spin on their country and people. How much of the tourist experience is therefore contrived?

Leisure and tourism is very applicable to geographic inquiry. People often travel to experience new places and people, escaping the normal and familiar world of their own home. Most importantly, tourism involves the movement of people from one place to another. Where are they going, and where are they coming from? Who is more likely to travel, and how are travel destinations changing over time? Why do people want to travel at all? Are humans just naturally curious about other places and people? Are they pulled, or attracted, by a particular place or event, or do people use travel as a temporary escape from their own lives? Why are some people interested more in authentic experiences while others simply wish to be entertained at contrived theme parks such as Disney World? Some tourism researchers believe that inauthentic tourist experiences hold a negative impact on the traveler, and that only authentic experiences should be promoted. However, is there anything wrong with people who travel for entertainment purposes rather than education? As leisure and tourism industries continue to thrive, questions of authenticity, economic, and social costs and benefits will become even more important.

36) Indian Gaming in the US: Distribution, Significance and Trends, Dick G. Winchell, John F. Lounsbury, and Lawrence M. Sommers, Focus, Winter 1997.

American Indian reservations have always been an anomaly in the American landscape. They are a reminder of some of the less pleasant aspects of the settling of the U.S. by Europeans and others. More recently, they have come to symbolize a sea of change in the country's social values as gambling becomes an accepted part of 'normal' life. What role does location play in the social acceptance, economic success and failure, and community impact of Indian reservation gaming?

37) Lancaster County, Pennsylvania's Heritage Tourism Initiative: A Preliminary Assessment, Gary Hovinen, Small Town, May-June 1997.

History and ethnicity are major elements in modern tourism. Tourism, however, tends to commercialize 'authenticity,' resulting in its ultimate destruction. Preserving heritage so that it may fully experienced and appreciated by both visitors and local residents is no easy task, particularly when strong local traditions, such as those held by the Amish, must be respected. How is the built landscape created, maintained and changed over time? What role does community planning play in this process?

38) The Changing Face of the Pacific Northwest, Thomas Harvey, Journal of the West, July 1998.

The Pacific Northwest's distinct regional identity as the nation's ecological utopia may be changing as high tech industries and urban influences come to dominate this former back region, despite valiant efforts to maintain the traditional agricultural and timber economies. The farmlands, forests and small towns of today, however, are economically more important as recreation and tourist attractions B a pattern seen in many other parts of the country, as well. In what ways is small town and rural America become an extension of metropolitan living?

39) American Microbreweries and Neolocalism: "Ale-ing" for a Sense of Place, Wes Flack, Journal of Cultural Geography, Spring/Summer 1997.

After a long period of domination by mass-produced brewing operations, small, locally-oriented microbrewries are springing up all over the U.S., following a trend that started earlier in Europe. These establishments may be the quintessential post-modern enterprise, representing both a backlash against both Fordist mass production and the globalization of culture and commerce. Can you think of other commercial products or enterprises that achieved successful by representing the opposite of mass production, mass consumption and globalization? Are microbreweries a form of 'sustainable development'?

40) Sun, Fun & Rum Deal: Perspectives on Development in the Commonwealth Caribbean, Robert B. Potter and Sally Lloyd-Evans, Focus, Winter 1997.

The Caribbean region is viewed by most Americans and Europeans as an attractive tropical paradise. However, Robert Potter and Sally Lloyd-Evans describe a very different reality for the majority of island residents throughout the Caribbean. While luxury resorts present a contrived experience for visitors, the people of the real Caribbean region are struggling to escape the poverty and unemployment brought to them by a history of slavery and colonialism. Will increasing tourism activities lead to sustained economic development in this region? Will the tourism industry improve the quality of life of the majority of Caribbean residents?

41) Outward Bound: Chinese Catch the Travel Bug, Pamela Yatsko and Rodney Tasker, Far Eastern Economic Review, March 26, 1998.

The infant tourism industry in China is beginning to boom. As household incomes rise and the Chinese government relaxes its strict travel regulations, Chinese are finding it much easier to become world travelers. In 1999 Thailand expects 560,000 Chinese visitors. By the year 2020, China is expected to become the world's fourth largest source of tourists. What are the implications of this emerging tourism industry for China's economic and social development?

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last updated 25 June 1999