SOC301

• Coupe, Laurence (2000). The Green Studies Reader.
• Devall, Bill and Sessions, George. (1985). Deep Ecology.
• Biehl, Janet. (1991). Rethinking Ecofeminist Politics.
• Diamond, Irene and Orenstein, Gloria (eds.) (1990). Reweaving the World.
• Gorz, André. (1980). Ecology as Politics.
• Merchant, Carolyn. (1980). The Death of Nature.
• Moore, Thomas. (1994) "Ecology: Sacred Homecoming" in Tobias Soul of Nature.
• Naess, Arne. (1973). "The shallow and the deep, long-range ecology movement." Inquiry. Vol. 16.
• Nash, Roderick F. (1989). The Rights of Nature.
• Rifkin, Jeremy. (1991). Biosphere Politics: A New Consciousness for a New Century.
• Robertson, et. al. (eds). (1996). Future Natural: nature, science, culture.
• Swimme, Brian and Berry, Thomas. (1992). The Universe Story.
• Vogel, Steven. (1996) Against Nature: The Concept of Nature in Critical Theory.
• Wilber, Ken. (1995). Sex, Ecology, Spirituality: The Spirit of Evolution.

This lesson looks at major themes in contemporary environmental theory and how theories have informed the Environmental Movement.

We will discuss the ideas of conservationism, deep ecology, ecofeminism, social ecology, cosmological social theory and Native American ideas in relation to the Environmental Movement.

Conservationism is at the heart of the environmental movement. Conservationism believes in the use of political and economic structures to elevate human life through the protection of certain aspects of the environment.

Deep ecologists hold that most environmentalism has focused on legal and institutional changes necessary to deal with pollution and resource depletion rather than more fundamental changes in the relations between humans and non human nature that influences these structural problems.

Ecofeminist theory looks at shifting perceptions of the self in relation to the environment. EcoFeminism views the oppression of nature and the oppression of women as having common roots in patriarchal domination.

Social Ecology holds that social structures are at the base of environmental problems which are best addressed through adjusting political and structural arrangements.

These are the objectives for this lesson:

1. To understand major themes in contemporary environmental theory.
2. To analyze these theories.
3. To understand the connections between environmental theory and the environmental movement.

CONSERVATIONISM:

Conservationist social theories are at the base of the environmental movement. Conservationist theories are utilitarian. They do not oppose industrialism or materialism, but rather seek to optimize the use of nature. As Shockey notes,

"The continual use of natural resources to feed the desires of modern culture... requires careful assessment of the health and survival of the natural world. To this end, conservationism has historically supported a scientific infrastructure of natural resource management techniques, which in turn brings strength and credibility to the conservationist ideals (Shockey, 49)."

Conservationism has been incorporated into mainstream environmental groups such as Sierra Club and The Audubon Society who have received tremendous corporate support. Essentially, the conservationist tradition seeks to elevate human life through protection of certain aspects of the environment within the confines of the political process and economic structures. The strategies promoted and used are reformist, seeking primarily to affect legislation. Such thinking has lead the environmental movement to:

• Develop an institution of experts and influence schools, government agencies and legislation to promote "sustainable development." Sustainable development seeks to "...convert ecologically destructive production into environmentally sound production (Merchant (1992), 212)."
• Focus the movement on a cost/benefit analysis to "manage" nature.
• Create personal enjoyment of nature through the development of recreational areas and parks.
• Create laws which preserve the natural world when the threat to it appears to directly harm human beings.

Explore the ideas of conservationism. Check out Econet Headlines and explore how the ideas of Conservationism are found in various articles. Also check out the links below on sustainable development and think about how sustainable development ideas are related to conservationism.

Center for Excellence for Sustainable Development
Sustainable Global Development
Centre for Economic and Social Studies of the Environment-Sustainable Development

Some things to think about:

What do you think about the Conservationist Movement? Do you see elements of this movement where you live? For instance, controlled burning here in Flagstaff is part of a Conservationist notion that if you control burn the forest, you will ultimately keep forest fires “in check” and from harming human life and human enterprise. What do you think of this perspective?

DEEP ECOLOGY

Deep ecology presents a radical critique of the present utilitarian view of nature and holds that reform environmentalism, in dealing only with legal and institutional restructuring, overlooks the necessity for "... fundamental changes in human relations with nonhuman nature (Merchant (1992), 85-86)." Deep ecologists critique the conservationist view of nature as a resource and hold that conservationists are "...guided by forces of economy and power, the policies and actions of conservationists uphold the corresponding policies of hierarchy, domination, and anthropocentrism (Shockey, 51)." In this light, sustainable development is considered by deep ecologists and others as sustainable exploitation.

Deep ecology focuses on two basic principles developed by Arne Naess (1972): (1) self-realization; (2) biocentric equality. These two principles suggest a particular direction for the environmental movement. "Self-realization" refers to a restructuring of traditional Western notions of the self which isolate the individual. Through self- realization we gain an eco-consciousness, an understanding of the self as part of a greater whole- a recognition that the self is an integral part of the planet and ultimately the cosmos. Connected to this is the principle of "biocentric equality" which holds that all members of the biotic community have intrinsic value.

Please explore Transcript of an Interview with Arne Naess

Full incorporation of an eco-consciousness and a sense of biocentric equality might have some of the following influences on the Environmental Movement:

• A focus by environmentalists to develop their own eco-consciousness while also trying to affect institutional and cultural change.
• Focus on public consciousness-raising beyond institutional change.
• Draw on spiritual avenues such as Buddhism and Hinduism to foster a sense that "modesty and humility and awe of evolution take precedence over an assertion of human power over the biosphere (Merchant (1992), 87)."
• Focus on development of land in such a way where people live within the human carrying capacity.
• Follow an eco-centric ethic rather than an homocentric ethic. Environmentalists would not only focus on how environmental problems harm the human community, but would more fully consider the effects on the entire range of living creatures and seek to protect the entire biosphere.

Essentially, a deep ecological focus within the environmental movement would shift the focus of the movement from institution change to cultural, psychological and spiritual change. Raising consciousness of both the public and movement members would be a primary focus of the movement. Personal change would be just as important as societal change and a deep ecological social movement would foster a love of human and nonhuman nature and a purposefulness in action regarding personal relationship to nature. The ideals of deep ecology are epitomized in a statement made by Ghandi. When Ghandi was asked if his humanitarianism was expressed by his good deeds in a village he replied that he worked "to serve no one else but myself (Devall and Sessions, 197)." As Devall and Sessions (1985) comment, "Altruism was unnecessary because his self embraced the whole village (Ibid.)." An environmental movement that embraced such ideals would seek to create this kind of sensibility in not only its members, but the rest of the world.

For further understanding read:

Institute for Deep Ecology
Introduction to Deep Ecology
Deep Ecology Sites on Yahoo

Read through:

Radical Ecology and Deep Ecology by Carolyn Merchant.

There is much information here on deep ecology, its roots and its philosophy. Carolyn Merchant is one of the leading thinkers in this field. Hope you enjoy this reading.

Please explore these Additional Resources:

• Self-rea lization and society- Transcript of an Interview with Arne Naess and Helena Norberg-Hodge

ECOFEMINISM

The merging of ecology with feminism sought "to give the environmental movement a critical lens through which to locate the sources of our social and environmental corruption (Shockey, 36)." EcoFeminism views the oppression of nature and the oppression of women as having common roots in patriarchal domination. Ecofeminists believe that a strong environmental movement would best be organized in a non-hierarchical fashion. As Judith Plant explains,

"Within human society, the idea of hierarchy has been used to justify social domination; and it has been projected onto nature, thereby establishing an attitude of controlling the natural world. The convergence of feminism with ecology is occurring because of an increasing awareness that there are, in fact, no hierarchies in nature. A belief in the virtues of diversity and nonhierarchical organization is shared by both views (Plant (1988) in Diamond and Orenstein, 156)."

Most Ecofeminists hold that hierarchical organizations are patriarchal forms of domination which run counter to notions of environmental protection. The strategies and directions that Ecofeminists use to achieve their goals vary depending on the strain of ecofeminism.

Liberal Ecofeminists believe that environmental problems result from rapid development of natural resources and failure to regulate pollutants. They seek to pass new laws and regulations. While this is already the main emphasis of the environmental movement, liberal ecofeminism also highlight the necessity for equal educational opportunities for women to become scientists, natural resource managers, regulators, lawyers, and legislators. Women are encouraged to more fully join men in environmental conservation.

Radical Ecofeminists see spirituality as a source for personal and social change. They hold that patriarchy is rooted in a mechanistic worldview and seek to replace this worldview with an organismic one largely through connecting to ancient Neolithic Goddess spiritual traditions. Strategies include "Goddess worship and rituals centered around the lunar and female menstrual cycles, lectures, art exhibitions, street and theater productions, and direct political action (web weaving in antinuclear protests). [These strategies] are all examples of re-visioning nature and women as powerful forces (Merchant (1990) in Diamond and Orenstein, 101)."

Socialist Ecofeminists seek to completely restructure the capitalist patriarchal system, focusing on dismantling the market economy. They hold that women and nature are dominated by the market economy's use of both as resources. They are also critical of the mechanistic worldview and the treatment of nature as passive. While radical Ecofeminists focus on women's biological and nurturant roles as important to the environmental movement, socialist Ecofeminists focus on social reproduction such as socialization and the legal and political reproduction of the social order (Ibid., 103)."

Other ways that Ecofeminists seek to direct the environmental movement are:

• Demilitarization. In seeking to understand the connections between misogyny and the destruction of nature, many Ecofeminists see militarism and the military industry as the most immediate threat to life on this planet.
• Change those aspects of the culture that support militarism. Ecofeminists seek to change, for instance, the economic budget which places over one half of federal money into the military.
• Ecofeminists hold that women should play a central role in the environmental movement because of the joint suffering both nature and women have endured.

Learn more about Ecofeminism at:
Ecofeminism by Rosemary Radford Reuther
Women’s Environmental Network
Ecofeminism Bibliography

SOCIAL ECOLOGY

Social ecology sees the organization of social structures as being at the base of environmental problems. Unlike deep ecologists and many Ecofeminists who argue that to transform society we must look at our personal and spiritual worldviews in relation to nature, social ecologists argue that we must first address the political and structural arrangements of society- individuals will adjust to the frameworks. Conservationists also look to political and other structural changes; however, they seek to reform within the given social structures. Social ecologists do not seek reform, but rather the creation of "decentralized and sustainable communities which operate in cooperation with the environment (Shockey, 41)." Like conservationism, social ecology is homocentric holding that the first priority is human ecology and this secondarily extends to natural ecology.

Social ecologists seek to influence the environmental movement through focusing on demographic issues. They envision a world where biotic human needs are fulfilled through an economic restructuring that is sustainable. They seek stabilization of the world population as crucial to maintaining a sustainable society and therefore focus on economic programs that would lead to a demographic slowdown. They believe that programs that provide for health care, employment, elderly security "... are pathways that will bring about a demographic transition in developing countries and equalize the quality of life in both developed and developing countries (Merchant (1992), 153)."

Go on to Environmental Theory and the Environmental Movement
or
Go back to Overview of Environmental Concepts

E-mail Janine Minkler at Janine.Minkler@nau.edu
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