American Indian Education

From a tribal and Native American professional perspective, the creation of lifelong learning environments and meaningful educational experiences for both the young and adults of a tribal community requires a language and cultural context that supports the traditions, knowledge, and language(s) of the community as the starting place for learning new ideas and knowledge. There is a firm belief within many tribal communities and (among) Native educators that this cultural context is absolutely essential if one is to succeed academically and to build meaningful lives as adults. (Demmert & Towner, 2003, p. 1)

Situating education within the context of the Native student's culture and language works best when the teacher shares that student's culture. However, this is seldom a reality. In 1993-94, nearly half of all American Indian and Alaska Native students were enrolled in either BIA/tribal schools or public schools with high Indian enrollments (HIE) where they comprised from 57% to 98%of the total student body. Thirty-eight percent of all the teachers in BIA/tribal schools were American Indian or Alaska Native with 95% of these teachers reporting they were tribally enrolled. Only 15% of the teachers in HIE public schools were American Indian or Alaska Native. All other Native students attended public schools with low Indian enrollments where they represent on average 6% of the total student body (Pavel 1999). In low Indian enrollment schools, Native teachers are even less visible.

The Importance of Language and Culture in Native Education
The President of Chief Dull Knife College Richard Littlebear acknowledges that it is often difficult to explain why preserving and strengthening endangered Native languages and cultures is so important. He speaks of the power of the language to,

make the speakers of that language...whole in a very real sense. American Indian languages transmit and strengthen our cultural and individual identities and any splintering of these abilities to transmit or to strengthen does irreparable harm to American Indian psyches. (2003, p. 81)

Building a New Native Teacher Corps
While increasing the number of Native teachers has long been a priority among Native communities and educators, recognition of this critical need in President Clinton's 1998 Executive Order on American Indian and Alaska Native Education provided an impetus to fund a new teacher corps initiative. Over the past four years more than 1000 individuals across the country have completed or are currently enrolled in Native teacher preparation programs funded by Office of Indian Education (OIE) professional development grants. There is hope that these new elementary teachers will become the vanguard in a movement to indigenize schooling for Native students.

In the fall of 2001, when more than 500 students were already enrolled in the first generation of the new professional development programs, a study was launched to follow their progress. It encompassed 27 OIE funded programs plus six programs in Alaska and Hawaii that served Native students. The Native Educators Research Project, based at the Center for Indian Education at Arizona State University and funded through the Office of Educational Research and Improvement and the OIE, sought to understand the dynamic interplay between the programs and the individual experiences and attitudes of the persons enrolled in them. The first year of the study yielded a profile of the new teachers, including their attitudes about the place of language and culture in the classroom, and identified elements of the individual programs that prepared the new teachers to effectively situate their teaching within the cultural context of their students' lives.

The new teachers are predominantly female (81%), and 51% are below the age of 30. Forty-eight percent of the respondents have had prior experience as instructional aides. More than half understand their Native or tribal language but only 45% speak it. Concerning their own Native/Tribal cultures and traditions, 89% report they are somewhat to very knowledgeable. Ninety-five percent of the respondents feel Native/tribal language should be included in the schooling of Native children, and 97% feel Native/tribal culture should be included. When asked How well prepared are you to teach your Native/tribal language?, 21% said they feel "somewhat" to "very well" prepared, 64% feel "not at all" to "somewhat" prepared. With regard to their preparation to teach Native/tribal culture, 33% feel they are "somewhat" to "very well" prepared and 38% feel "not at all" to "somewhat" prepared.

In 2003 case studies were launched to examine the experiences of eight new teachers, who favored the inclusion of language and culture and felt that they were prepared to accomplish this, in their schools and classrooms. These case studies reveal that efforts to situate learning within the local context are often thwarted by factors within the teaching environments. The specific situations underlying this issue range from community dissonance regarding the place of Native language and culture in the school, to a lack of pedagogical knowledge, methodology and teaching materials, to the conflicting demands and pressures of state standards and federal mandates.

Certain other issues also emerged as prominent. The most frequently cited were the need for orientation, induction or formal mentoring at the school sites and the need for strategies to increase parent involvement and enhance communication with families. They additionally identified issues around discipline, motivating students, and lack of spare time, problems that are common to new teachers anywhere (Whitaker, 2001).

As the case studies proceeded, the researchers moved into the role of mentors to the teachers. Utilizing reflective journaling, they guided participants in exploring issues of pedagogy and curriculum significant to their experiences and identifying personal bias as well as dissonance or congruence they were experiencing in their teaching environment. Participants reported that this process had great value personally and professionally. The experiences of the novice teachers as well as the success of the mentoring exercises carry important implications for the professional development of Native educators.

Implications for Native Teacher Training
The findings from these case studies suggest three areas of consideration in planning indigenous teacher preparation programs:

1. If Native teachers are expected to integrate Native language and culture in their teaching, they must be well informed about issues surrounding these topics and equipped with the methods and pedagogic techniques to accomplish this.

The mission statements for each of the 33 Native teacher preparation programs included in this study stress their intent to prepare teachers to be responsive to the needs of Native students. Many specifically articulate a focus on Native language and culture. However, the course content and requirements often do not reflect this intent. Many of the programs have general diversity education or multicultural education requirements and purport to integrate Native or tribal values and perspectives into all course work. However, only six of the programs located in state universities, nine in tribal colleges and one in a private institution specifically include course requirements in the areas of Native language, culture and history. Just twelve of the programs offer or require courses in Native languages, ESL or bilingual education; eight of these are in tribal colleges.

It is important to note that two of the programs stand alone as exemplary with regards to their preparation of teachers to integrate language and culture. Both programs utilize Native language as the language of instruction, employ indigenous faculty almost exclusively and situate learning in the context of local knowledge, values and traditions.

2. Instruction should be "indigenized," allocating more time and resources to promoting critical thinking around issues that address the needs of Native communities and learners, such as parent involvement, authentic assessment, teaching strategies congruent with Native learning styles; modeling culturally responsive curriculum and teaching; and providing Native faculty to mentor and guide their professional development.

If their own learning experiences are presented in context and via processes that are congruent with Native worldviews, the new teachers will be inclined to transmit knowledge to their own students in the same way.

3. Mentoring and support must be extended as a constant feature throughout the teachers' induction year.

In their study of novice teachers, Lally and Velera noted: "In all too many cases, the tremendous support surrounding the student teacher throughout his or her practicum comes to a screeching halt as soon as the degree is conferred" (2000, p. 106). It has been suggested that this could be attributed to "Praxis shock," an unsettling response that occurs when their university preparation confronts K-12 classroom realities in their first teaching position (e.g., Kelchtermans & Ballet, 2001). This was experienced to some degree by all eight of the Native case study teachers. However, mentoring activities supported them in identifying issues, prioritizing goals, resolving problems and developing a reflective practice that respond to the unique needs of their Native students.

The new Native teachers are teaching us much about what is important if they are to influence the movement away from ineffectual assimilationist systems of education toward indigenous models that will honor Native languages, culture, traditions, values and knowledge and will improve academic outcomes for Native students. While many of the components of an indigenous teacher training model are coming into clear focus, Kathryn Manuelito reminds us: "From a Native perspective, no event or process is completely finished; it is always in a state of changing and becoming. So, too, in the case of Native education, and particularly Native teacher preparation programs” (2003, p.2).

NOTE: Arizona State University's Center for Indian Education published in December 2006 a 156 page monograph describing the results of their five year Native Educators Research Project titled The Power of Native Teachers: Language and Culture in the Classroom. Chapters include A Changing Political Context, The Native Educators Research Project, Issues Facing New Native Teachers, Defining the Context and Understanding Behind Language and Culture in Native Communities, Re-Envisioning Indigenous Teacher Education, and Exercising Our Power as Native Teachers. Of special interest is information from case studies of two new Native teachers: one taught in an Hawaiian Immersion school and the other in a Navajo (Diné) Immersion School.

References
Demmert, W. & Towner, J. (2003). A review of the research literature on the influences of culturally based education on the academic performance of Native American students. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved August 17, 2004 at http://www.nwrel.org/indianed/cbe.pdf

Kelchtermans, G. & Ballet, K. (2001). The micropolitics of teacher induction: A narrative-bibliographical study of teacher socialization. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18I, 105-120.

Lally, C. & Velera, K. (2000). Language teacher observation and reflective diaries: An alternative perspective. Education, 121, 106-120.

Littlebear, R. (2003). Chief Dull Knife Community College is Strengthening the Northern Cheyenne Language and Culture. Journal of American Indian Education, 42(1), 75-84.

Manuelito, K. (2003). Building a Native teaching force: Important considerations. ERIC Digest EDO-RC-03-9, Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools.

Novick, R.; Fisher, A. & Saifer, S. (2002). Sharing the wisdom of practice: Schools that optimize literacy learning for all students. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.

Pavel, M. (1999). American Indians and Alaska Natives in higher education. In K. Swisher & J. Tippeconnic (Eds.), Next steps: Research and practice to advance Indian education. Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools.

Swisher, K., & Tippeconnic, T. (1999). Research to support improved practice in Indian education. In K. Swisher & J. Tippeconnic (Eds.), Next steps: Research and practice to advance Indian education (pp. 295-307). Charleston, WV: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools.

Whitaker, Susan D. (2001). Supporting beginning special education teachers. Focus on Exceptional Children, 34(4), 1-18.