PEPSI Reading

Developing the Whole Person

The next set of materials provides guidelines about the development of human beings. It is surprising just how much can be understood in a child's behavior by learning about the different ages and stages of normal development. For ease of presentation and to provide a mnemonic for sorting through and accommodating the vast wealth of developmental concepts, the material has evolved into a 'PEPSI' model. The letters stand for physical, emotional, philosophical, social and intellectual areas of development.
Human Development
From the moment of conception until that last breath, the average individual progresses along a continuum of development. During the twentieth century, excellent progress was made in understanding and determining the normal sequence of human development across many areas. There is now a research base and consensus as to what is considered normal development. There is NOT a consensus in education about how many areas of human development make up the province of our responsibility. Teachers who are successful and who are loved by students attend to the whole child. They understand the interplay of different areas of development, of student needs and the effect of all areas of growth on the child's ability to become an educated, self-controlled, contributing member of society.
There are five distinct areas of development that form a 'hands-on" devise for understanding youth and recognizing patterns that contribute to actions and behavior. These areas give a frame of reference for looking at an individual and also provide a sense of continuity about normal and predicable changes in children over time. “PEPSI” refers to the five areas of progressive and continuous changes in the human essence that make up a developmental perspective of growth.
Area of Development Authority Cited

P - Physical Gessell, Ilg, Ames
E - Emotional Erik Erikson
P - Philosophical or moral Kohlberg, Piaget
S - Social Langer, Kagan, Moss, Mussen
I - Intellectual or cognitive Piaget, Inhelder, Vygotsky

Research in Development

Physical: Gessell, Ilg, and Ames are medical doctors who have spent a life time working with children. Their reasearch about step-wise development of physical traits, motor development and some of the social and emotional growth of children is rich and thoroughly validated. Their work is based on tens of thousands of children in the United States during this century. They wrote a number of books about the subject, and many parents learn about development through their writings.
Emotional: Erik Erikson had a psychoanalytic background. His work is based on a psycho-social viewpoint. Strengths include his deep thinking about development in adolescents and across the life span, extending the notion of human development from infancy through old age. It is difficult to separate the various facets of personality into emotional and social distinctions, so much of his work on personality development overlaps into the social realm as well. For purposes of our PEPSI screening, his theory is primary in the area of emotional development. His ideas are very complex and deep, and add an important understanding about human beings and relationship.
Philosophical: Kohlberg took the moral development work of Piaget into account in his theories about the development of moral reasoning. There is a strong component of cognitive psychology in his work. The impact of ego development in children is also part of his framework. Kohlberg, and researchers since then, agreed on one set of findings that is critical to this screening. There is a developmental process which occurs with respect to gaining moral reasoning or a philosophical perspective about life. Depending on the level of philosophical development, the way life experiences will be viewed and explained changes through life in predicable ways that appear to be sequential.
Social: There is a mixture of theories utilized in the compilation of the social development theory. Coopersmith’s material on esteem, Loevinger’s work on ego development, Kegan’s work on individual and the ability to see viewpoints of others, referent from Gessell and Ilg, concepts from social learning theory and Maccoby’s work with family systems are brought together. Because of the strong influence of social learning theory, information about social development seems to be more a pulling together of bits and pieces of human development. The research is far from conclusive, and there are wide variations based on cultural upbringing and the imperatives of a youth’s sub-culture. There is some evidence that the research is societally skewed. It is not so much evidence suggesting a racial bias, a gender bias, a social class bias, a possible disparity with respect to modern cultures and “folk” or village development, but that all of these factors contribute to a person’s view of the world. These factors are also part of the people who study children and those who set up and quantify the findings. Each set of findings is “grounded” in the world view of the person looking for answers. It is even a part of what questions seem important or inform the research. In general, the findings given in this material focus on modern youth in modern cultures, and take the vantage point that in looking at human development we see more similarities than differences.
Intellectual: Piaget and Inhelder researched intellectual development. They are not the only developers of concepts about cognition. Vygotsky, Bruner and Bloom also offer important insights into how we learn. We use Piaget’s perspective because of his constructs of assimilation and accommodation. They are a critical part of understanding how we construct meaning and how we accumulate a world view. Piaget’s initial studies of cognitive processes were conducted on his own children, but since then many of his concepts have been replicated on large numbers of children.
There is some disagreement about how a teacher can encourage or "hurry" cognitive development, how much importance to give Piaget’s ideas with respect to altering curriculum, but there appears to be little question that his ideas provide a better understanding of the cognitive domain. [Please note that PEPSI is not meant to be a comprehensive accumulation of all significant theorists. It is a didactic tool for helping teachers accumulate and utilize developmental knowledge in learning about students. It is assumed that the practitioner will bring additional information and areas of expertise to its use.]
Deepening the Understanding of the Person
The average individual progresses along a continuum of development in all the categories which distinguishes him or her as a human being. “What makes us human” --- has been a question pondered and answered and reanswered by many great thinkers, but in the end there is always that elusive unsaid ‘something’ that distinguishes human life from all other known life forms. There is a consensus as to what is considered a normal development.
In the following pages we are bringing together, in a visual summary, what is theoretically considered a pattern of normal child development. It is put together in outline and chart form as a “hands-on’ devise for better understanding the child, recognizing and accepting typical child behavior, and also as an information base. The visual representation may be an assist in screening. The progressive and continuous changes in the human organism include the physical, the intellectual, social, ego, emotional and moral as a system of development occurring at different periods in an individual life. Five charts are included first to provide a spatial and then a linear representation and growth continuum of these areas. They are presented as “V” charts, to represent the developmental nature of growth. Growth and development is initiated at the apex of each chart and it is presumed that the student cycles around and upward with experience and age.
FIVE DEVELOPMENTAL “V” CHARTS
PHYSICAL
EMOTIONAL
PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIAL
INTELLECTUAL

Learning about Students with the PEPSI Assessment
The PEPSI model works as a teacher's "hands-on" device, showing guidelines for recognizing and confirming a pattern of child behaviors and providing insight into child needs. By using the detailed charting which is provided as a reference guide, the teacher effort is enhanced, increasing the ability to pinpoint levels of development in any (each) of the five progressing areas and then discern a pattern in the fit and interdependence of the five areas. As these areas of development are put together, they form a pattern which helps explain student action as and enhance recognition of the child’s strengths and weaknesses. The charts for ages 5 through late adolescence are included at the end of this chapter. Overview charts outlining each area of development are also included.
Creating a PEPSI
Begin the process by observing one student and gathering data in several situations. Interview the teen when possible and ask those who are close to the youth to furnish some of the information. Talking with previous teachers, the school nurse and looking at records can also give a dimension to the knowledge base being developed. A PEPSI model can be worked out with limited information, though the more that is known the better the outcome. Compare the information gathered with the charts provided about all five developmental frameworks.
The student behavior can be compared one age at a time using the developmental age charts. Go through this sequence for each one of the five developmental (PEPSI) areas and then prepare an overview of the youngster's progress. A hands-on set of charts have been provided to assist in acquiring the techniques. A sample of a PEPSI protocol follows.
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Age and stage outlines are recorded on the blank PEPSI model to give a visual representation
of the student's development.

Once the educator recognizes the components in a student's PEPSI it is possible to help the youngster enhance behaviors in less developed, weaker areas. The individual PEPSI may also serve as a visual signal to remind educators and parents that the teen may be developmentally delayed in some areas but not in others, thus helping to alter inappropriate expectations or mediate unnecessarily high demands which are beyond the child's current repertoire of behavior choices. Essentially, it will be possible to highlight strengths and utilize them for the child's progress as well.
The following is an example of the process, shown with PEPSI charting.
The teacher, Mr. Clark, talks with Mr. & Mrs. Doe who have come in to ask for help with their thirteen-year-old son. The parents are concerned about a number of changes in their son's behavior patterns that seem to have started "over night." They feel that Jason is not doing well in school, that he overreacts to almost every situation. They have talked with the neighbor who suggested that they follow up with these worries by seeking help from a child therapist. The parents were upset and decide to learn of the teacher's perception of Jason.

Mr. Clark talks with the parents about his perception of the lies, and whining, the lethargy and the obstinacy. The teacher points out that the behaviors are not that uncommon in the rest of the middle school students. Mr. Clark tells the parents that Jason has a very special gift in cartooning but his behaviors are not always accepted by age mates in the class. The parents have begun to worry about drugs and suicide. They express a belief that their son fits the classic symptom list flashed on television and they want to be reassured that their son ‘s music listening habits are not indicative of such problems.

They add that their son has become moody, taciturn and seems to be having bad dreams at night. They inquire about occurrences at school which might be causing these things. (Mr. Clark begins to see that many of these concerns fit the typical developmental profile for early adolescents.)The parents then explain the event which precipitated the search for answers about Jason. It occurred a week ago when he burst out that he hated the rules, hated being told what to do and he thought he must be adopted because the whole family was mean to him. He threatened to run away from home.

The first step is to seek additional information from the parents. During the interview, which could be conducted with or without the boy, Mr. Clark will get a list of the concerns, and also ask for instances of positive behavior. He will work to get a sense of how radical the differences are between the acceptable earlier behaviors and the current concerns. It is important to rule out illnesses or any catastrophic changes in the family. It is surprising how often a parent sees an event as unimportant, while a teen finds it devastating.
It may be helpful to ask for a family history, to inquire if either parent feels that the student is behaving as they did as an early adolescent, and to determine if some of the frustration is being fueled by significant others (in this case other teachers in the middle school) who are voicing new disapproval of the teen. Asking the parents to keep a journal for a week may also assist in establishing current behaviors as well as the kinds of things the parents find most egregious.
As a next step, take the list of behaviors and make comparisons with the age/stage charts. It is usually easiest to lay out the charts for the student's chronological age and the levels on either side. Thus, initially, Mr. Clark pulls out the charts for ages twelve, early adolescence and late adolescence. As comparisons are initiated, it becomes clear that there are many areas which are uncertain or unknown. It is impossible in an interview and an informal observation session to have enough information to make a definite decision. There may be an opportunity to call and discuss some of the questions which arise. However, this is an initial screening. It is a time to look for impressions, establishing a starting point, rather than a label or diagnosis.
Because Mr. Clark is a caring professional, he will assist the parents in their quest for answers. As the teacher of 90 youngsters, Mr. Clark could not do this extensive work up on every child in the middle school. However, by giving the parents support and getting to know Jason better, he is developing trust and relationship. These are important elements in a service industry - and teaching is a service. Mr. Clark will continue to learn about each student in the class over time. Although he will not do a PEPSI for each youth in the beginning, he will work toward accomplishing a PEPSI on troubled students as expediently as possible.
As Mr. Clark gathers data about Jason, he gets is an initial sense that frequently occurs, that many of the concerns can be addressed by assisting the parents to recognize a positive developmental occurrence. As Brazelton (1983 ) noted, there is typically a disorganization or disequilibrium which occurs to children just as they begin to take on the next level of behaviors . After eight or nine months of coping with behavior sets, the parents feel stabilized. They know what to expect from their child and the child has become equilibrated with the last set of new behaviors.
As a new growth spurt begins there is a typical destabilization. There may be a sense of futility from care givers.
"Last year we worked on lying and getting homework done on time. We made great progress and he had completely stopped lying. Now, all of a sudden we're back to lying , but now he's sneaky and deceptive about it, but he gets nasty and belligerent when he’s caught. We're further behind than when we started."
In moving into the new developmental stage, many of the consolidated skills are disrupted, almost like a regression. The disorganization is actually a step forward, signaling a new array of skills on the way, but the immediate evidence does not reassure parents. Sometimes it catches educators off guard as well. Often the time right after Christmas break is very different in the classroom because many of the students moved to a different developmental level during the break.
Another pointer that suggests advancing development is the sudden onset or change in behavior patterns with no other precipitating factors. And, as the charting for Jason is laid out, many of the offending behaviors show up on the chart of the early adolescent. Naturally this is inconclusive. The PEPSI model was developed and is best used to assist in sorting through those things that are normal and those that are more anomalous.
Intervention may still be advisable - after all the family is expressing a sense of frustration and pain. However, it can be from a belief that health is building, a “person is becoming . . .” perspective. The milieu allows for more optimism, a little humor. "It came to pass, it didn't come to stay" can be asserted in amusement; "Well, Mr. and Mrs. Doe, unfortunately, your son Jason is acting his age." It is certainly possible, as well as desirable, to teach parents and care givers ways to optimize the teen's growth. It also alleviates a great deal of concern, grief and guilt - freeing up energy for better coping, if the parents can be reassured that what is happening is normal, and that a child's growth often signals that the parents are providing a good environment, since stability and security are vital links in allowing the child to move to new stages. It is helpful for the teen, too, if the parents feel they can understand the normalcy in what the youngster does.
It is possible, even likely, that the charting will show areas which are advanced or strengths for the youth as well as areas with apparent delays. These can be developed as part of the educational plan. In this sense, it might be possible for the parent to come to the teacher for help with the child’s lying, and after the developmental charting, for the lying to become secondary and the family interaction to become the main area for work. If the PEPSI screening turns up a need for the parents to focus on improvement of relationship and communications in the family system then the teacher wisely refers the parents to appropriate community counseling and family services.
For Jason’s parents, looking at the lad's school work and report card were not good clues to the real issues or cognitive capability, and that is frequently the case when a youth is viewed as being at risk. From Mr. Clark’s perspective, Jason was no more disruptive or out of control than most youngsters of thirteen. By helping the family see that Jason is moving along a developmental continuum, Mr. Clark made a difference in Jason’s family life and probably averted esteem issues for Jason.
Most of the adolescents who create disturbances in the classroom are actually manifesting developmental delays which create a sense of frustration for the teacher and for other students. By developing PEPSI charts, it is possible to begin to see common patterns. Seeing these patterns then helps the teacher to work with the student more effectively rather than seeing the student as dysfunctional.
Teens who are unusually bright, advanced in cognitive and moral reasoning ability, frequently show social and emotional delays. Having learned to work with adults, they may be lacking in good social skills with other adolescents. In other cases, having thought alone and kept to themselves, they may be missing trust or interest in peers, which looks very much like emotional immaturity. Understanding the potential for different types of advanced or delayed development assists the teacher to make sense of many student behaviors which have previously been viewed with alarm. Recognizing and being able to explain unusual behavior patterns assists in understanding, accepting and then moving the student forward in those areas of delay. No one area of delay becomes overemphasized. More gifts are valued.
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Some students have permanent developmental blocks, for instance severely mentally challenged youngsters. By understanding the pattern of intellectual delay which is paired with normal physical development the teacher can work with the student at the appropriate intellectual level, fully understanding the futility of expecting the 15-year-old Down’s girl, who is really more of a four-year-old to behave as a teen, yet also recognizing how adult the child looks.
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Looking at this diagram of a typical developmental array for a Down’s teen clarifies how age mates might misunderstand the mature woman body who skips down the street expressing delight, wonderment and excitement about Dorothy and the Wizard of Oz. It provides a frame of reference as teachers work with her in Mixed Chorus when she cannot remember the lyrics. It builds better understanding and acceptance for peers who sit next to her at lunch while she giggles about her twinkies and milk.
The PEPSI screening process can be learned in a brief period of time. The information base is well established, reasonably objective and well researched. The use of the information is more subjective. As the educator practices the model, reliability will increase. The ability to recognize behavior patterns will become sharper with increased familiarity with the factors and dimensions of development. The PEPSI screening tool can be useful, even during the learning process. It is vital to appropriate utilization to recognize the basic assumptions inherent in the tool.
Philosophical Understandings about Developmental Screening
1. The PEPSI assessment model is based on an humanistic philosophy, a belief in health and positive growth and maintains a human-centered focus.
2. It derives basic concepts from the research in developmental literature.
3. The screening procedure is informal, partially intuitive and instructive, with outcome viewed as a starting point for assisting in recognizing patterns of behavior and general levels of human growth.
4. The PEPSI model is not intended as a set of criteria for labeling or diagnosing in any setting or with any student.
5. The PEPSI is intended to be a flexible tool which can be adjusted to meet individual teacher needs.
6. Viewing the student through a PEPSI model may provide adult awareness of areas which can be strengthened and nourished in the youth.
7. Once a PEPSI is constructed for a student there may be a visible image of strengths, weaknesses and areas of developmental progress which can assist in production of an individual growth plan and which may be included in a student’s portfolio.
8. PEPSI can be a self help tool when taught to adolescent students to assist them in developing self awareness.
It is essential, in reading developmental charts, to remember that human development is nearly always sequential but it is not necessarily age-specific to any individual. Thus the "norm" or general guidelines for twelve-year-olds will actually be accurate for approximately 68% of children who are twelve. The other 32% of the class will be beyond those guidelines or will not have reached them. Theoretically, with a class of 30 students and five differing areas of development, one or two students would be developmentally appropriate or "normal" across all levels and the other 28 students would probably fall above or below the guidelines in at least one area. Given this understanding of youngsters and their growth, the teacher, rather than labeling the teen as abnormal, might set the goal for progress in the slower area and guide the youth to enjoy areas of strength as well. Safety, high expectations and relationship are keys to optimal growth.
Once the teacher recognizes a developmental disparity, a goal can be generated to address growth. In addition, the teacher will be able to facilitate student progress through increasing safety and structure in the classroom environment when a youngster is working to improve skills or increase levels of development. Student energy can be enhanced by showing pleasure in strengths as well as focusing on concerns. It is also useful to provide practice in missing skills which would be likely to come next, according to the indications from the charting. Again, the teacher who rewards close approximations rather than focusing on errors will be assisting the young person to develop freely at an optimal level.
The Whole Person
If development of the physical body is our only societal imperative then schooling is pointless. If the intellectual development is the only sphere of concern, then teaching the basic "3-R's" is justifiable. If, however we are preparing the person for life, for entrance into society, for personhood, then we must teach the WHOLE PERSON. The effective teacher does teach the whole person; first recognizing the component parts of personhood, then learning the developmentally appropriate sequencing of the human growth. At that point we are in an excellent position to assist in optimizing the environment and energizing the youngster to take on the vital processes for enhancing individual development.
Review of steps in a PEPSI Screening
a) Gather information about the student.
b) Compare the youth's behaviors with the age charts supplied.
c) Draw out a PEPSI chart for a "typical" age mate.
d) Diagram an illustration of the findings for the individual student.
e) List strengths and weaknesses which are apparent from the profile.
f) Review suggestion list for enhancing safety and increasing individual
student growth options.
FGHJ Gathering Speed FGHJ
Assisting Student Development
In addition to ascertaining a student's PEPSI, it is important to see the child as pursuing a life journey which is developmental. Many times adults respond to childish antics with "Act your age". Generally the child is acting in an appropriate manner for the age and stage in which s/he is currently performing. The discomfort comes in the lack of understanding on the part of the adult, that the child's behavior is most often purposive and not intentionally disruptive.
Recognizing the student's developmental steps and adult responses and behaviors which facilitate development and foster better understanding. The following chart provides an overview of developmental tasks for youngsters and the adult responses which facilitate completion of the developmental work.
DEVELOPMENTAL WORK
STUDENT'S TASK ADULT'S TASK
INFANCY Curiosity about world Instill trust
Initial communications Provide safe environment Trusting relationships. Provide unconditional
Savor self and nurturing love and caring
Motor skills foundation Enhance safe exploration

PRE- Autonomous behavior Encourage choices
SCHOOL Emotional Self-reliance Provide security
Testing and setting limits Let child know there are limits
Attachment to male model Assist child to find male heroes
Initial peer socialization Provide opportunities for play

K- THIRD Social relations Teach about respect, kindness
Carry ideas to completion Assist with focus and structure
Initiative Foster independence
Small muscle coordination Provide creative outlets
Concept of good and bad - Acceptance of "doer" - skills
fair to me, fair to others valued rather than lacks noted

FOURTH Peer relationships Encourage self worth through
- SIXTH Hobbies group memberships Sense of competition Use consistency and praise
Desire to help others genuine generosity of others
Strong sense of self Make allowances for need for
Wants "fairness", rules privacy and responsibility
Success as a friend Enhance active involvement
Reciprocity Use natural consequences, logic

ADOLESCENCE

Rediscover Primary identity Accept lack of identity
" Social identity Provide social outlets
" Sexual identity Listen to concerns
" Moral development Explain values and tolerate
Discover need for norms opinions and ”know-it-all”
Develop and incorporate self Keep communications open
monitoring, personal values Value the “being” of the youth
Stimulation and excitement Provide challenges, change
Construct new life context Share true feelings
Fear of the future Promise support of failures Teachers need to add knowledge of other human factors as well to properly work with students: The nature and personality of children, social background, biological and psychological needs, levels of development and capacity to learn contribute to better understanding.
To use a metaphor, medical science only progressed as the true nature of each function of the human body was studied and understood as an interplay in a complex system. Consequently that knowledge was used to improve the dynamics of treating the patient. Doctors who chose to treat one ailment in isolation often created a bigger problem for the patient's entire system.
Good doctors learn to look at all of the patient's symptoms, at those things which are working well, not just at the disease. They calculate the risk of treating a small ailment with something which might permanently damage a major system. For instance, many eye ailments can be treated with the application of mercury. Unfortunately, mercury is a strong poison and even in small internalized doses it will kill a person. In a sense that old saying applies: "The operation was a success but the patient died."
The teacher looks to the whole person and works to synchronize the growth energy inherent in the student, the special gifts and talents, traits and abilities. The teacher assists the teen to capitalize on those parts of the course of study which harmonize with the developmental tasks at hand and the idiosyncratic potentials of each student. As the expert teacher combines understanding of the student’s needs, the developmental strengths and weaknesses, the level of autonomous or heteronomous response and the learning needs and abilities, there is a deepening of ability to move the student forward, to attend to the youth as a loved one, to help the child accept personal responsibility to move forward.
Instead of engaging in power struggles or fruitless battles to get tasks accomplished, learning takes on a power of its own. The student, feeling understood, given a safe and secure environment, empowered to fully utilize intrinsic motivation, accomplishes each day what cannot be done by push and shove in a year.
The good teacher who gets to know each student will continue to learn about the nature of children and the human condition and will acquire excellent skills for building youth. The power implicit in democratic management should not be under-estimated. It can and will put joy back into the art of teaching and excitement and energy into the minds and hearts of youngsters allowed to work in these conditions.
The effective educator places emphasis on understanding each individual student, recognizing individual patterns of growth, and designs ways to reflect on the nature of people. By combining awareness of human development patterns and the specific patterns of individual students, s/h can be alert to ways to implement best practice in the classroom.
In Summary
We are preparing our youth for life, for entrance into society, and for acceptance of self as a unique and special person. We accept the WHOLE PERSON. We do that by first recognizing the component parts of each youngster, then learning the developmentally appropriate sequencing of the human growth and then assisting in optimizing the environment. We use time valued roles to energize the student to take on the processes for enhancing individual development and acceptance of special gifts and strengths as well as weaknesses. We do that best when we believe in that vision ourselves, and then have built enough relationship with the student that s/he captures the magic in the vision and truly celebrates self.
References
Bloom, B. S. (1968). Learning for mastery. Evaluation comment, 1(2). Los Angeles, CA: University of California, Center for the Study of Evaluation of Instructional Programs.

Brazelton, T. B. (1983). Infants and mothers: Differences in development. New York: Delta/Seymour Lawrence.

Bruner, J. S. (1990).. Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Coopersmith, S. (1967). The antecedents of self-esteem. San Francisco: Freeman.

Erikson, E. (1950). Childhood and society. New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.

Gessell, A., et. al. (1940). The first five years of life. New York: Harper.

Gessell, A., & Ilg, F. (1943). Infant and child in the culture of today. New York: Harper.

Harlow, H. F. & Zimmerman, R. R. (1959). "Affectional responses in the infant monkey." Science, 130, pp.421-432.

Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Kohlberg, L. (1981). The philosophy of moral development. San Francisco: Harper & Row.

Loevinger, J. with Blasi, A. (1976). Ego development: Conceptions and theories. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.

Maccoby, E. (1980). Social development: Psychological growth and the parent-child relationship. New York: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich.

Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. New York: Van Nostrand.

Piaget, J. (1930). The child's conception of physical causality. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. Translated by M. Worden. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World.

Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (21964). The early growth of logic in the child. Translated by L. Lunger & D. Papert. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). The collected works of L.S. Vygotsky (translated by Rieber and Carton). New York: Plenum.

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E-mail J'Anne Ellsworth at Janne.Ellsworth@nau.edu

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