Jon Jeffery Photography

It is an exciting yet unstable time for photographic educators in higher education today. Recently developed technologies and techniques involving digital imaging science have changed the way photographers work. Educators that teach photography to adults are now at a crossroads with their educational approaches between the well-established traditional photographic techniques and the emerging digital practices. With both budget restraints and the rapid rate of development of these technologies, how can photographic educators possibly keep their instruction current? Do those teachers who choose to ignore the current trends and methodologies run the risk of actually harming their students by not giving them the tools they need to reach the level of success they aspire to reach in the field of photography? How to balance the approaches between well- established photographic practices and new digital methods currently creates a major issue for photography education. Narrowing down the most important areas in each category of photography can enable cost effective, current and applicable instruction to the workplace.

As a result of new practices and techniques created by digital applications in photography, photographic instruction in higher education faces a new state of development. Incorporation of new ideas and technologies in education does not happen easily or immediately. Because of photography’s current transitional state, defining a universal foundation for photographic instruction is difficult. What are the areas of emphasis in regards to digital photography? From the collection of well-established photographic techniques that are not digital methods, what areas should continue to be included in curriculums? Redefining the most significant aspects to include in instruction poses a challenge for photography education presently.

Adult professional photographic education achieves success if it allows students to be employable in the field upon completion of their studies. Because photography connects so strongly to technology it can be speculated that an effective program must be technologically current to prepare students for the workplace. With the rapidly changing techniques and approaches in the photographic industry today, the skill set that graduates need to hold to be successful is quickly developing and often times difficult to define. In addition to these difficulties, institutions offering programs in this area also face obstacles of limitations in funding and time when developing curriculums. In order to keep professional photography programs current yet efficient the foundational areas within photography, including both traditional and digital techniques, need to be determined.

Educators teaching professional photography in universities and colleges need to instruct their students with skills that are directly transferable to the workplace. Digital imaging has changed the way that the photography industry operates. Educators in this specialized area can benefit from sharing knowledge and ideas involving the issues concerning new photographic technologies. This study was designed to establish a guide for current and prospective educators in the area of teaching professional photography. The instructors that took part in this study identified areas that are fundamental aspects of photography education today. This will be a useful tool in effectively and efficiently implementing technological changes into a professional photographic education program.

This study analyzed the instructor’s responses that were generated through a forum about these issues. The purpose of the study was to demonstrate that the current changes in photographic techniques are affecting educators and their practices. Therefore, this topic was relevant to all of the participating subjects in this study, as well as, others teaching photography. The collective opinions of instructors that took part in this study and, the findings of this study were the basis for this Thesis. Ultimately, the projected result of this study was a determination of new curricular standards for professional photography instruction in higher education.

1) What is the general level of acceptance that professional photographic educators have about digital imaging?

2) Is the relation between digital photography and traditional techniques an adversarial one? Does one replace the other, or are they still both relevant in vocational photographic training? What traditional aspects are still relevant?

3) What are educators in this area currently doing in regards to digital photography? How has their curriculum been re-shaped recently by the new techniques?

4) How do educators predict their instruction will change in the future as a result of the new technology driven industry changes?

5) What are the core areas in digital photography that instructors should include in their instruction? What do instructors feel are the most important areas of emphasis?

1) The study is confined to investigating photography education that is professional or vocational in nature, found in higher educational settings. The standards for determining which programs meet this description include: if the program offers a degree or certificate in photography other than art photography, if the variety of coursework that was offered included possible professional applications, if there is internship offerings, and if the individual program’s stated approach and philosophy to photography education is professional in nature.

These schools have been selected because they all are linked by the ultimate goal to prepare students for working in the field of professional photography. Photography education that lacks this approach has different motivations, reasons, and standards for developing curriculum. Implementing digital photography effectively into photography programs to make students better equipped for the workplace was a foundational motivation for this study. Therefore, only institutions that teach from this philosophical standpoint could give valid feedback to the survey.

2) The region of which the study was limited to the four-corners states that of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. This was a pre-existing, well-established geographic region that is very diverse. The region was geographically large and demographically varied. Selection of these four states created a survey area that was manageable and researchable, yet large enough that the results of this study could be applied to larger populations.

3) Only full-time faculty members with programs that met the requirements from the previous descriptions were surveyed. Since this study specifically investigated curriculum development with digital photography, only involvement by full-time faculty pertained to the study. Full-time faculty serves more of an official role in curriculum development in their institutions therefore their involvement in the study was more applicable.

4) This study focused on higher education and therefore did not include surveying members of the photographic industry. However, the study did identify current trends in the photography industry that relate to professional photography education. An industry perspective could have made a valid comparison, but understanding of the state of digital photography in higher education was seen as the primary need and reason for this study. Surveying future employers in the photographic field was determined to be beyond the scope of this study’s design and focus.

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CHAPTER 2

Review of Literature

"Technology happens. It isn’t good. It isn’t bad – Andy Grove, CEO of Intel" (Farce, 1998, page 14).

What is the effect of technology happening? The goal of this research was to investigate how digital technology is being incorporated into professional photography education curricula. With the new techniques being implemented what happens to the pre-existing ones? Professional photography programs are strongly connected to industry practices in order to prepare students for careers in this field. Therefore how technology is incorporated and accepted in the photography industry gives a good indication of the emergence of new practices in professional photography education. Investigating how the photography industry manages the use of new technologies with already well established approaches is insightful in predicting how it will manage the use of technology in the future. To gain a better understanding of the process of technological incorporation in the photography industry, as it relates to photography education, the history of the 35mm film format in photography and its current widespread mass use will be reviewed and compared to digital technology. Parallels will be drawn between the development of the 35mm format and the evolution of digital photographic technologies.

The 35mm format is credited as being developed by the camera manufacturer Leica in 1913 as a method for testing exposure for motion picture filming. At the time this was a new format of camera that could take individual frames and be developed prior to a cinema shoot. The unique qualities that this small camera featured were portability and ease of use. Leica used a roll film that could take several images at a time. The lens could allow more light into the camera with many of these cameras having a lens with a maximum aperture setting of as large as F3.5. This camera was one of the first with an ability to be easily hand held and could allow continuous shooting without constant reloading of film or the loading of film backs in complete darkness. Leica realized that with these features this camera had more applications. In 1924, Leica began to market this camera to a large consumer audience, not just motion picture makers. It became the first widely sold truly hand-held and carried camera that had a quality design. Snapshot photography emerged with the creation of this format (Hulick, 1998, page 55).

This small camera did not gain mass acceptance and desirability immediately. At the time, the larger formats of film such as eight by ten-inch, five by seven-inch, and four by five-inch sizes were the most largely used film formats for professionals and hobby photographers. With decreased size of the original image came decreased quality. However, the camera was making photography more accessible to more people that ever before (Hulick, 1998, page 143).

The 35mm format is credited for solidifying an entirely new style or form of photography. Photojournalism incorporated spontaneity and realism into photography. With its increased speed and portability photographs could be made without being deliberately set up. This was a new and emerging area in professional photography that is still widely practiced today (McDarrah and McDarrah, 1999, page 489).

Some photographers working in the area described as photojournalists began using this format immediately after its mass release in 1924. Although it was embraced by and used by some photographers almost immediately this film format was available for some time before it gained a widespread acceptance and found its niche in the world of professional photography (McDarrah and McDarrah, 1999, page 489).

To fully establish the photographic form of photojournalism and its use of the 35mm format the world needed an event with universal impact that photography could capture. The Second World War was this event. Photographers such as Henri Cartier-Bresson, Robert Capa, and W. Eugene Smith solidified photojournalism as the candid photography of the human condition thorough their visual record of combat using 35mm cameras such as Leica’s cameras (McDarrah and McDarrah, 1999 page 489). With the use of 35mm format by these photographers the format gained more recognition and use. However, after the war concluded 35mm still had not gained a dominant widespread popularity for photojournalism. Surprisingly, even as recent as the 1950s the four by five-inch format was still popular among news photographers (Hulick, 1998, page 143). This can be attributed to quality concerns of newspapers and possibly, the industry’s resistance to change. During this time period other advancements that increased the quality of images that could be produced by 35mm included improvements in film technology and optics. Since the 1950s, 35mm has been known as a photojournalist’s format of choice as well as the most popular format for the consumer market. From its release in 1924 the format had a very gradual rise to its current popularity, a progression that took at least twenty-five years or more.

During the time period of combat photographers of World War II other previously existing formats continued to be used in specific areas in professional photography. The larger formats, especially the four by five-inch format, began to be repositioned in their use. Commercial photographers that needed to maintain a very high level of quality continued to use large format cameras and still do to this day. The precise and expressive photography of Ansel Adams, Minor White and Edward Weston also embraced the quality that the larger formats could provide (Hulick, 1998 page 143). This type of photography was deliberate and planned unlike the candid type of photography that had a natural correlation to 35mm. Large format photography was never replaced or eliminated by the 35mm camera, it merely changed how and when it was being used.

The qualities established in this review that 35mm photography possess are very similar to the traits that currently describe digital technologies. Digital photography offers increased speed in production of imagery and ease of transport. Digital photography, like 35mm prior to the 1950’s, is characterized by many, as not meeting the necessary requirements for the level of quality needed for certain professional applications. Like many of the rapidly developing digital technologies, 35mm was once a newer, less established and accepted method of image making. As discussed previously, when the technology of 35mm photography improved with quality of films and other design features use of that camera format increased. In addition, the features for that the 35mm format provided met the needs for the specific aspect of professional photography called photojournalism. Likewise, digital photography is improving in its capacity to capture and store imagery while maintaining a portable design. With these improvements its incorporation into professional practice will continue.

Because of the similar qualities that 35mm shares with digital photography it is not surprising what professional area of professional photography has embraced digital first. Digital photography increases portability and speed in delivery of imagery even more than 35mm had. News photography has been the first professional area to really embrace the new techniques because of the time they can save photographers and because in newspapers the quality of reproduction is not as much of a concern as other publications. Kevin Gilbert, the president of the White House News Photographers Association was quoted in Professional Photographer Storytellers as stating that, "Constantly trying to beat the other guy to the punch has made digital a necessity" (Ryals, 1998, page 51).

In the last ten years the quality and affordability of various digital imaging technology has improved tremendously. Mikkel Aaland, a San Francisco based photographer, stated in the January/February 2002 ASMP Bulletin that, "Computers are not only a whole lot cheaper but they are super fast. 512 MB of RAM is now cheaper than a polarizing filter" (Aaland, 2002, page 5).

Currently, many other areas of professional photography are beginning to incorporate digital techniques. These areas include wedding photography, commercial photography, portraiture, and there is even stock photography that can be described as purely digital. Digital photography is being used as a method of capturing images, printing and reproducing them, and transporting and marketing them.

In conclusion, technological change typically takes time to become fully practiced and accepted in any industry. Looking at the history of 35mm photography it is evident what a long process this can be. Any new technology in photographic practice, like 35mm in the past and digital photography now, does not necessary replace or make obsolete previously existing techniques. Larger formats were never eliminated by the existence of 35mm photography. Their applications were just repositioned. Digital photography has many of the same attractive features that the 35mm format offers and just like 35mm its practice will likely continue to evolve as technology in the area develops. As evidenced by the history of the 35mm format into professional photographic practice, it can be predicted that digital photography will not completely replace the traditional techniques in photography immediately or in the foreseeable future. Traditional photographic techniques could instead change their role in practice and will be reshaped into niches where they offer something that digital may lack. This progression might be similar to the role that large format photography currently holds in the professional photographic industry as discussed previously. Likewise, incorporation of new digital technologies in professional photography might be as gradual as the incorporation of 35mm was.

"When I hear photography instructors express their reluctance to embrace digital imaging, my heart goes out to them. Then after the polite, fifteen seconds of obligatory sympathy, I tell them if they really value their student’s futures, they need to get with the program or retire" (Burkholder, 2001, page 5).

Although this statement by Dan Burkholder, author of the book Making Digital Negatives for Contact Printing, may be harsh in tone it does address a very important concern. How valuable is education that is so strongly linked to technology like photography education if the techniques being presented are not technologically current? On the other hand how can photography instructors not be resistant to changes in their curriculum as a result of this new category of instruction? Many photography educators may be resistant to adapting their instruction because technology is changing so fast. At this rate of change how can anyone expect to be able to stay completely current in an educational setting? This may be a justification to ignore digital imaging altogether, but not a realistic or truly academic approach. In Dan Burkholder’s recent article in Ilford Photo Instructor he stated that it is human nature to resist change which is inevitable and necessary. The instructors that embrace change sooner will likely be able to keep more current than those that do not (Burkholder, 2001 page 5).

As demonstrated in the previous section, it took many years before the 35mm format was accepted and used in professional photographic settings. Many professionals resisted change and didn’t adopt the use of the format for many years, even in the segment of professional photography it is best suited for, photojournalism. Likewise photography educators included the use of the 35mm film format in curricula many years after its invention. Currently, in photography education most students begin their training with 35mm and are introduced to other film formats later. The 35mm format likely gained popularity in schools mainly because these cameras are readily available and relatively inexpensive. To start a student on this format allows them to learn fundamentals that are transferable to other film formats at a reasonable cost. Until this format became widely adopted by professional photographers and consumers the 35mm film format was not a critical aspect of photography education. Therefore, affordability and accessibility of this technology can clearly be linked to the professional practices of the time. This establishes that in schools, the use of technology mirrors and connects to what professionals are doing either by design or by market driven considerations. The previously discussed comparison between the incorporation of digital photography and 35mm in professional practices then likely applies to educational settings also. When digital photography becomes less expensive and can deliver a quality level that is useful for professionals then digital may become a common aspect of professional photography programs even with the most resistant instructors. Therefore, as Dan Burkholder believes, change is inevitable and will be experienced in schools if the photography industry continues to adopt digital photography.

From a recent historical standpoint, a counter argument for the implementation of digital techniques into a curriculum is that the foundational skills of photography can be taught with traditional techniques. Possibly the content of photographs and photography’s basic fundamental concepts should be more of a focus in photography education. In A.D. Coleman’s book, The Digital Evolution, Coleman includes an interview with Thomas Gartside, a key speaker and organizer in 1983 of the Society of Photographic Education National Conference. Gartside’s philosophy about the future of photographic education included this quote, "We must direct students to pay more attention to the images they’re making, rather than give themselves up to the technology and surrender to its blandishments – direct them to make fewer and fewer images, and to think harder and harder about them" (Coleman, 1998, page 66). Although this statement was made near the beginning of the history of digital photography, it is a philosophy that may still enable resistance to digital instruction by educators. By including Gartside’s interview and this subsequent statement, it can be speculated that A.D. Coleman believed that this view still existed in photography education when the book was written in 1998. Although Gartside may have a different stance on this issue now this statement represents a view about digital imaging that the most resistant photography instructor may still hold today.

When comparing completely opposing statements about digital technology in photography education, like Gartside’s and Burkholder’s, does an instructor need to completely agree or disagree with either one? If an educator has some level of agreement with Gartside’s statement that curricula should teach students how to be better image-makers not just better technicians of photographic equipment does this belief automatically exclude any instruction involving digital applications in photographic education? Agreement with Gartside’s statement doesn’t necessarily mean an instructor must omit the teaching technology. The use of technology in photography education has been linked to the photography industry. Therefore, being a skilled photographer alone may not be enough to make a graduating photography student employable in the industry.

A study done by John Russial and Wayne Wanta in 1997 surveyed photography editors from 225 major newspapers about the skills they valued most when hiring new photographers. One of the major findings of the study stated that, "Photo editors ranked traditional photography skills such as shooting and providing accurate information highest among the 17 skills listed, and another traditional skill, picture editing, is also high. Two processing skills (scanning and using PhotoShop) are next in importance" (Russial and Wanta, 1998, page 594). This study clearly indicates that there are skills, particularly in the news related photography business, that have a premium value to employers over digital related skills, but digital skills are still quite high on the list. This study may even be somewhat dated at five years old. But in fact, the importance of digital skills might even be higher on the list today because digital technologies are being practiced and incorporated into the various fields in photography more and more every year. This study, specifically investigated news photography, but can be used to infer hiring qualifications throughout professional photography today. If a photographic educational setting has as one of its goals and outcomes to make students graduating employable in the photographic field than this study clearly indicates that digital skills are currently valuable in the workplace. Whether digital practices are a necessity to educate skilled photographers or not, with the increasing growth of digital techniques in the photography industry these skills will likely be a requirement for most entry-level positions that photography students will be applying for now and in the future. This is a skill set for future professionals that can not be ignored. Including digital techniques will not subtract from or replace other important concepts and traditional techniques taught in photography education, but add a new aspect.

A comment by Lil Junas, an Associate Professor of Journalism at Wartburg College, in the Fall 2001 issue of Ilford Photo Instructor gives a good perspective on this issue. Junas stated, "The digital age arrived years before my prediction. I concede to its place as a teaching aid in photography classes as well as its use by publication staffs. But it won’t completely replace shooting negatives and printing in my class darkrooms. That’s where the art and skills of photography blossom" (Junas, 2001, page 7).

The following information that follows will discuss what professional photographers are currently doing in the area of digital imaging and how these techniques have reshaped their businesses. This section is designed to narrow down the areas within digital photography into the areas that are currently most important and what today’s professionals predict will be the industry standard in the future. Based on this discussion it can be concluded how these techniques and approaches should also be incorporated into a photographic educational curriculum. Specifically, this section will investigate digital capture of photography versus film, digital postproduction methods, and marketing related business practices.

"Last spring I heard Dean Collins tell a group, "If you are creative, and elect not to shift from film, you can still make a great living in 20 years." This from a guy most of us highly respect" (Frank, 1998, page 46).

One of the most controversial categories in digital imaging today is if light sensitive, silver based film that requires chemical processing will continue to be the primary method for capturing original images in photography. Many photographers have resisted the switch to the digital capturing of images because traditionally the cost of digital capture is typically very high as compared to film with reduced quality. However, digital capturing methods in photography are starting to be used and accepted for a wide variety of professional applications. In a recent article in Studio Photography and Design photographer and writer Allan Weitz referring to digital capture methods stated that "Truth be told, much of what you see in print today is digital" (Weitz, 2001, page 64). A current evaluation of the capabilities of digital capture will show why this area is starting to gain momentum. To do this a description of the types of digital cameras and how they work is necessary.

Digital cameras are similar to traditional cameras in that the size of the original image recorded is directly related to the subtleties in quality of that image. With film, the larger the original piece of film is the more information can be recorded, therefore the image has an increased quality and clarity to it. This is commonly referred to in the field of photography as grain size and sharpness. Instead of using film, digital cameras record dots of color onto a light sensitive chip in a range of lightness or darkness. These dots are called pixels. The higher the number of pixels that are included and recorded in an image the more quality that image will have (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2001, Paragraph 34). The number of pixels in image is commonly referred to as the resolution of the image. Digital photography is currently capable of recording very high-resolution imagery that is comparable to many of the standard film formats available but are usually at a higher purchasing price.

The four by five-inch film format is the industry standard for commercial photography. A complete camera in this format with several lenses that records images onto film does not cost a photographer more than $10,000. To adapt a four by five inch camera with the ability to capture images digitally comes at a substantially higher cost along with numerous restrictions. As reported by Fred Van Der Ende in a recent online article, "A high end four by five digital camera will cost somewhere around $30,000 besides the fact that you need a heavy workstation like Macintosh 8100 with at least 64 MB of internal RAM, so the investment is quite heavy" (Van Der Ende, paragraph 1). To further increase the restrictions that four by five-inch digital cameras put on the photographer they require very long exposure times, often a minute or more, in which time they record the color during three separate passes. Therefore, these types of cameras are not useful for moving objects and are not suited well for flash photography either. Why would a photographer pay three times as much or more and give up flexibility in portability, lighting, and subject type to use such a camera system? The only business context in which four by five-inch digital cameras are being used currently is in large studios that make a large volume of images daily, for example catalogue photographers (Farce, 1998, page 50). Digital four by five inch format cameras have a comparable quality as their film counterparts, but with no down time waiting for film development. These digital cameras can give a photographer an exact, high-quality image that can be readied for publication within hours (Farce, 1998, page 50).

A second category of digital cameras used by many photographic portrait artists is digital capture backs that may fit on existing medium format camera systems, or have their own camera systems. The most attractive feature that these cameras offer is an opportunity for instant proofing and feedback from clients. Much like the very high-end four by five-inch digital cameras mentioned previously, these backs need to be connected to a computer system while being used which restricts their portability. They typically have a light sensitive chip size that is capable of recording an image comparable in quality to a 35mm format of film in resolution. Using this type of camera in a set-up studio a photographer can take as many photographs in the session as necessary or until the client is satisfied with the images. Making extra images does not increase the cost of the shoot and the selection of images can be made immediately (Aaland, 1996, paragraphs 2 and 3). Not having to digitize the image later by scanning the photographer can also produce prints virtually immediately. These types of systems are more expensive than that of film, but do not require constant lab and processing fees (Anderson, 2002, page 8). Digital backs that can be used on pre-existing film designed cameras can also decrease the original purchase cost for such a system (Zucker, 2002, pages 32 – 34).

The largest area of growth for digital cameras currently is with portable cameras that have a similar image quality and features as 35mm single lens reflex cameras. Similar to the digital capture systems mentioned previously, these cameras are priced at a range that is about three times that of a film camera with comparable features. Some of the features that these cameras have, in addition to their 35mm single lens reflex counterparts, are increased flexibility and the ability to record more images without reloading film. The flexibility comes from being able to change light sensitivity to light (ASA rating) from frame to frame instead of one roll at a time. In a recent Photo District News article, a magazine and editorial photographer describes how these features have increased his productivity as a photographer and why he now prefers to use digital cameras. Steve Liss is quoted as saying, "If I’m shooting under a whole variety of available light conditions, I don’t have to change film types. I can make sure the color is in fact what I saw, not what the camera saw" (Walker, 2001, page 50-51). Liss is one of the first photographers that has successfully used digital capture in newsmagazines. His image of a 91 year-old nun in the May 14, 2001 issue of Time magazine was the first completely digitally photographed cover in the magazine’s history. Many newspaper photographers have been using digital cameras for years now, because the print quality in newspapers of reproduction is not as critical as in a glossy magazine. Liss and many other editorial photographers are using the most current digital cameras and are proving that these cameras now meet necessary quality requirements for publication in magazines (Walker, 2001, 50-56).

It is clear that radical advances in digital capture technology have been made in recent years and the quality of digital cameras will likely continue to increase and become more affordable. In a recent ASMP Bulletin article on digital photography author Mikkel Aaland stated that, "You need to go to the $2,000 - $5,000 range to get many of the features that professionals are used to (for digital cameras that are comparable to 35mm film cameras) but it is a far cry from just a few years ago when $10,000 was considered entry level for any kind of professional equipment" (Aaland, 2002, page 5).

Despite the emerging trend of digital capture cameras in the publication industry, film will continue to be a valid and useful form of image capture. Because film can be converted into a digital format though scanning it is not excluded from being used in these applications. With superior quality and low cost it is unlikely that film will be replaced by digital immediately or in the foreseeable future. Photographer Monte Zucker in a current issue of Rangefinder magazine explains why he plans on continuing his use of film capture cameras. "After all, the benefits of film-based imagery can never be denied, nor should they. Taking all those benefits into consideration and adding to them that with a scanner one can change any film to digital, there doesn’t seem to be any case for seriously thinking that film will go out of style" (Zucker, 2002, page 32). Photographers like Zucker are using digital cameras currently for some applications and film for ones where quality is the major consideration (Zucker, 2002, page 32).

In conclusion, capturing images using digital cameras is now a rapidly growing area in photography. With the increased speed of production that digital capture can produce comes much higher prices across all category descriptions. Some of these digital capture methods also reduce portability of a camera because of a necessary computer connection. In the rent past digital capture methods could not produce a quality that was comparable to the quality of film. Today digital has this quality, but for a considerably higher cost. Digital capture methods do not appear to be replacing the use of film currently, but they are giving photographers more choices. The most overwhelming reason that film can continue to exist and enjoy widespread popularity is because a film image can always be converted to digital in postproduction. Today, a photographer merely has to decide if the qualities and cost of a digital camera meet his or her needs more than film. Essentially, it is just another equipment choice a photographer can make, not one that is necessary wrong or right.

Using digital means to adjust, and reproduce photographic imagery has been and is becoming a part of the professional photographic field. Photographers are using programs such as Adobe PhotoShop to manipulate or modify their images after they are captured as well as using digitally generated printing and reproduction methods (Aaland, 1992, page 51). As mentioned in the pervious section, film scanning has made the distinction as to whether an image is originally produced digitally or on film not important in regards to the whether an image can be worked on digitally in postproduction. In digital postproduction adjustments are made in the computer instead of in the darkroom. Currently, the important issues that need to be addressed in regard to digital postproduction in professional photography are cost, efficiency, and quality. What are these methods now being used for and are they being practiced on a large scale? Do these digital methods offer a comparable quality to traditional darkroom techniques and possibly offer something even more?

Postproduction in photography can be defined as any altering of an image after its initial development and capture. Traditionally, using some type of printing process or a re-recording on film could only make these types of adjustments (Aaland, 1992, page 47). Today, in the publication industry, nearly every image produced is converted to a digital form by the time it is released to the consumer market. There are also many other aspects of professional photography that use digital reproduction exclusively (Aaland, 1992, Page 3). Because of such current widespread use of digital for professional photographers and aspiring professional photographers the current issue of concern appears to be not if their images will become digital files at some stage, but if it is necessary to be actively involved with these processes.

In a darkroom, when printing on silver based papers, photographers can fix problems with their original images by improving their quality, clarity, or message. Some of the types of adjustments that typify darkroom work are adjusting density of an image, color balance, increasing or decreasing contrast, resizing and cropping considerations. All of these alterations can currently be done on a computer with software (Bidner, 2001, page 31). The industry standard for image manipulation today is Adobe PhotoShop in its various versions, but there is other software that is also available. Not only can these applications achieve the same results and affects as an image projected darkroom, but also they can do things that traditionally may have been impossible or very difficult to do (Erickson and Romano, 1999, page 128). Such techniques include seamlessly adding or eliminating parts of an image. In addition, changes made to an image that can be easily saved making it easier to achieve consistent results when reproduced (Abend, 1998, page 84). With the capability of photographic postproduction software today comes new skills, demands control and responsibilities.

With the new software photographers can now make adjustments using just one tabletop computer system that replaces darkroom equipment that requires extensive space. The response to adjustments is virtually immediate making experimentation even more accessible than ever before (Burkholder, 2001, pages 5–6). For a photographer who wants absolute control over their final product using this type of imaging equipment may be very attractive, but this control does come at a cost. In a recent article in Rangefinder magazine, photographer Helen Boursier comments on her recent transition into digital printing and how difficult yet rewarding it has been in incorporated it into her business. Boursier stated that, "The learning curve for anything digital is incredibly intense, but compounded ten-fold when you have to use a new camera, with new computer programs, to do new selling on a new digital projector to print on new digital printers with new digital software and new hand-coloring techniques on the new surface that has to be mounted with new techniques. Consequently, we have learned more in this business year than all previous 19 years combined. Would I do it again? Yes in a heartbeat!" (Boursier, 2002, page 34)

The question that photographers seem to be struggling with the most is not if this software is a powerful new tool, but if they need that kind of control. John Frank argues in an article in Professional Photographer Storytellers that, "Time is money. If it takes you two hours to produce a digital print on watercolor paper, then you really have two major costs. The first cost is your time to produce the product, and the second is the opportunity cost, or the money you would have made shooting a portrait, had you not taken two previous hours to produce the digital print" (Frank, 1998, page 46). Just because something is available does not mean that it will make a photographer money and is worth doing. Using digital applications needs to be a business driven choice for professional photographers as much as a creative one. Most photographers make a business minded economic choice to have most of their film processing and printmaking done by a lab so that they can spend more of their time shooting. Using digital postproduction methods is no different. The equipment is becoming more affordable but is still costly, and can be just as time consuming as the traditional darkroom has been maybe even more so if the photographer has to spend an extensive amount of time learning how to incorporate it into their business.

Once an image has been adjusted in a digital form the types of prints that can be made are even more varied than with projected printing from film. There are two major types of printing processes that have resulted from current use of digital files instead of film. The first are prints that are digitally translated back onto to silver based printing materials. The second are prints made from ink-jet printers.

It is quite an expensive and complicated undertaking for a photographer to own a printing set-up that will expose digitally onto silver-based materials. This type of printing equipment is costly and requires all the same upkeep of chemicals as a projected film enlarger with the added cost of a computer and other digital equipment. Many professional photographers do not have a great enough need to do their own printing to justify the additional investment of money and time.

Many professional photographic labs have started using digital postproduction equipment that transmits digitally back to a silver-based paper. A professional lab that does a high enough volume of business can benefit from the features of this type of set up and still make money off of it. In fact, these types of systems that can print any form of film on to the most affordable silver based paper, color negative paper. This has made printing of color transparency materials and black and white more affordable than ever been before. The quality of these types of prints may not be exactly the same as their traditional counterparts, but for the cost and time involved they are very good and practically indistinguishable as to whether they were done digitally or with more traditional methods.

Ink-jet prints are in a separate category of digital printing. These types of prints lay down dots of ink onto paper instead of projecting them onto light sensitive material like in silver-based digital printing. The look and feel of an ink-jet print is different than a silver-based print and therefore is gaining less acceptance. High resolution ink-jet prints today can match or surpass the amount of information that can be recorded on a silver based print and be just as archival as the traditional printing papers. Then, the issue with ink-jet based prints is not whether it can deliver the same quality, but more a value judgement based on personal taste and feel of the prints.

A unique quality that ink-jet based printing has is that a print can be made on practically any surface or type of paper. This is where ink-jet printing is adding to the choices a photographer can make instead of just repeating or copying the existing silver based options. Prints done on watercolor paper and transparent materials are two of the more popular forms currently (Lauritzen, 2001, page 13).

Ink jet printers are becoming unbelievably affordable for the relative level of quality that they are capable of producing. Mikkel Aaland writes in the January/February issue of the ASMP Bulletin that, "High resolution, full color digital prints created with $400 - $700 ink jet printers such as the Epson 2000P- are rapidly filling sophisticated portfolios and hanging on gallery walls" (Aaland, 2002, page 5). However, the papers for such ink-jet prints and inks themselves are currently quite expensive. A high quality ink-jet print is not likely to be substantially less expensive than its silver based counterpart per single print, but these printers are making photographic printing more accessible to more people than every before while yielding quality results. The biggest issue for digital printing from ink-jet based printers now appears to be its acceptance by consumers of photography. These prints may never look exactly the same as silver based prints, but they do not necessarily have to match silver prints exactly to be considered a quality method.

"Where photographers are concerned the advantages of broad, affordable promotional exposure and extensive search access are proving extremely beneficial for many who have seized upon the Web’s potential" (Luce, 2002, page 8).

The final area involving digital processes in professional photography is one of the most discussed and written about topics to date. This is not because it is controversial, but instead because of its overwhelmingly positive responses. Using digital means to transport images to be marketed, sold or published is rapidly becoming a standard part of photography. Using the Worldwide web and other digital means to make imagery available is more affordable, more accessible and can reach more people than ever before. These benefits are increasing the potential for photographers to succeed and greatly outweigh any risk that may be involved in this area.

The primary method to market photography digitally is through the Worldwide Wed with photographers using websites. There are two major applications that photographers are using the web for, to market themselves as a photographer through posting of a portfolio or making direct sales via the Web where images are posted and can be downloaded for a price. Both of these areas have recently been extremely successful for generating business for photographers.

Before the widespread use of the Internet in the United States, photographers had several stages of advertising that they used to market their services. Typically, advertising through phone books has been the most common type of advertising that photographers used as well as some use of other print media. As mentioned in an article by Michael Eagleson a article in Professional Photographer Storytellers "A half-page display ad in the Yellow Pages of a metropolitan area costs approximately $3,000 per month-that’s $36,000 per year (color is extra). A tiny, column-width ad runs about $300-$500 per month ($3,000-$6,000 per year), and for a simple listing of your business and telephone number, $35-$50 per month ($400-$600 per year). You can put up your own Web site for as little as a $100 initial investment, and monthly fees of $15 - $20" (Eagleson, 1998, page 59). Clearly using the web is the most inexpensive advertising a photographer can currently use for a comparable amount of exposure with other types of advertising. It may never replace the other forms of advertising that photographers use, but at the very least it is an affordable and useful addition to a pre-existing marketing plan. Using the Web also has many distinct advantages and qualities that make it attractive for other reasons.

After an initial contact is made with a potential client a photographer typically has to meet personally with that potential client to show a printed portfolio or send one of these costly books out to that client. Photographers might need several copies of a printed portfolio that might be left with possible clients indefinitely. Printed portfolios are expensive to produce and there is always a risk that they may be damaged in shipping or by a careless viewer of the materials when they are handled. Having to allow a potential client tie up a portfolio when that person may not be that serious about hiring the photographer can also cost the photographer money. Being forced to produce more books or not having the chance to send books out to more serious clients can raise the cost of doing business. Instead, having a portfolio posted on the Web for possible clients to review now eliminates much of this extra work and production of hard copy portfolios. Potential clients can look at a website and decide if they want to pursue a photographer further and make an appointment or contact that professional. High quality printed portfolios will likely continue to be something that photographers will keep some copies of, but they will only be used in the final stages of negotiations for jobs. Therefore, fewer portfolios will need to be made and they will not have to be sent out with the risk of damage or loss (Eagleson, 1998 page 59).

The World Wide Web also has attractive qualities for someone wishing to hire a photographer. Now they can look at more work and make a more educated choice about a photographer before they even contact that person. The selection process can now be much more refined saving both the future client and photographer time that may be spent in unnecessary meetings. In addition, the websites can be accessed anywhere in the world. Photographers using web delivery portfolios currently can elicit interest in their services universally. Likewise, people that are traveling to a city may be convinced to hire local photographers after reviewing web site portfolios instead of bringing photographers with them (Eagleson, 1998 page 59).

In addition to marketing a photographer’s services, the web can be used to sell and re-sell existing work. Some of the areas of photography that are now using this technology most successfully are stock photography and wedding photography. Having images that can be sold directly from the Internet saves both the client and the photographer time and money. Customers can access a site from anywhere in the world and decide if they want to purchase images. This means that the photographer or agency representing the photographer doesn’t have to send out or produce an expensive portfolio or proof book (Fong, 2001, page 18).

Getty Images is the largest stock photography agency right now in the United States. Getty has gone to a completely e-commerce format in recent years. The sales from its vast collections of images are higher than they have ever been and they are currently buying up other stock companies. Anyone that is looking for an image to use in a publication can look on the site and browse. Once an image is located downloading that image, payment for its use, and an agreement about its use can all be done online virtually instantly. Problems of images being stolen or used without payment from the web have become very manageable with watermarking of images and required passwords to access downloadable files. This has made stock photography more accessible to clients than ever before, quicker, and much easier to locate. Getty’s success and other companies like it can demonstrate the unique and effective qualities that sales through the web offer photographers

(Walker, 2000, page 7).

Photographers are also operating websites that can resell their images exclusively and are enjoying great success. Photographers that specialize in event based photography, such as wedding photography, are using this type of marketing more frequently. Using the web to re-sell event based photography is an excellent way to increase profits. Since people attending an event can be from anywhere, even a foreign country, the web can provide access to images for sale later when people return home. Therefore the photographer can sell more images to more people with practically no extra cost in time or money (Pictage.com, paragraph 1). Wedding photographer, Garry Fong, described his successful incorporation of marketing images via the web using the website provider "Pictage" into his wedding photography business in an article in Studio Photography and Design. Fong states that "Pictage has greatly increased my revenue while lowering my costs, saving me time, and ensuring copyright protection. It’s let me focus on my passion, wedding photography, instead of on processing" (Fong, 2001, page 18).

The process of new technologies becoming part of the photography industry can be a gradual one. The way that the 35mm format was incorporated into widespread practice in professional photography may be similar to the emergence of digital innovations. Other photographic film formats that existed before 35mm are still used in professional photography today, but the way they are used is different. Similar to these other film formats that existed before 35mm, it can be predicted that many well-established, non-digital, areas in photography will continue to be part of the photography industry, but their role and use may be redefined as digital photography evolves in practice.

Professional Photography education, if it has as its goal to make students employable in the field, should reflect the current industry as much as possible. The study done by Russial and Wanta in 1998 entitled, "Digital Imaging Skills and the Hiring and Training of Photojournalists" (Russial and Wanta, 1998, pages 593 – 605) established that skills relating to digital photography are important to future employers in the photographic field. The study did not indicate, however, that digital skills are the only or even most important set of skills being considered during hiring selection. In the article, digital photography was established as an important aspect of professional photographic education, but not at the expense or exclusion of other skills and techniques.

Based on the articles and other materials researched in this review a broad description of the state of professional photography relating to digital technologies has been evaluated and established. The three areas of focus in this review have been digital capture, digital postproduction and printing methods, and the marketing aspects relating to digital photography. This review has made it clear that currently all three of these areas are growing in their use in the industry and will continue to grow.

The study done by Russial and Wanta in 1998 is the only study located that specifically identifies areas of emphasis within digital imaging in the photography industry and applies them to teaching photography students. This chapter described the areas of importance in digital photography for the industry today. These areas of emphasis could be used to establish a framework to apply industry standards with digital photography to related curriculums similar to the Russial and Wanta study.

CHAPTER 3

Methodology

This study was undertaken to determine the current practices, attitudes, and the predicted incorporation of digital technologies in professional photographic education in higher education. The following research questions were specifically investigated in this study.

What is the general level of acceptance that professional photographic educators have about digital imaging?

Is the relationship between digital photography and traditional techniques an adversarial one? Does one replace the other, or are they still both relevant in vocational photographic training? What traditional aspects are still relevant?

What are educators in this area currently doing in regards to digital photography? How has their curriculum been re-shaped recently by the new techniques?

How do educators predict their instruction will change in the future as a result of the new technology driven industry changes?

What are the core areas in digital photography that instructors should include in their instruction. What do instructors feel are the most important areas of emphasis?

This study was qualitative in nature. The research questions do not have answers that are rooted in numbers and fact, but are of opinion and practice. The survey was designed to find out what professional photographic educators collectively think about the impact of digital imaging on photography education. The interest in this study was not in individual responses, but in the overall description of how this group of educators reacted to these questions. The study was, therefore, anonymous in design and tracking of which participant filled out what survey was not done. The anonymous format was also used because it may have allowed the participants to answer the questions presented as honestly and thoughtfully as possible.

The questions that were posed to the survey group address specific aspects of the research questions. Many survey questions are simply a rephrasing or reformatting of a research questions. The survey specifically addressed each of the research questions to which this study was designed to explain. The questions were organized in such a manner as to allow for specific responses to the questions being posed. The survey design was developed to yield uniform results so that tabulation of those results could be made.

The first section, questions 1 through 5, used a Likert-type scale approach to measure levels of agreement the instructors have with the statements made. This approach was used to measure both the instructors’ positions and opinions on the issues being investigated. Simply asking participants what they think about a subject would produce complete qualitative information, but would lack uniformity. The Likert-type scale design produced results that were comprehensive in their ability to measure the opinion of the survey participants but also produced measurable results.

The second section, questions 1 through 7, of the survey utilized check boxes that give the possibility for numerous responses. These questions were designed to identify specific and general curricular areas in regards to photographic education. The results produced by this check box design make it possible to prioritize the specific categories in each question by determining which responses were selected most frequently. The data presented from these questions reflects a majority and minority opinion for each question posed.

The questions in the second section of the survey answered the research questions that were designed to identify different aspects of digital imaging as well as traditional techniques. Researching these topics in Chapter Two, Review of Literature, in combination with personal experience and knowledge was used to develop possible survey selections. The questions provided choices that are logical and were predicted to be the popular responses.

Responses that were provided by the check-box question format are limited and pre-fabricated and it is likely that many possible choices would not be available in the list provided for selection. To lessen the effect of these limitations, section two also included in some questions with "other" boxes followed by a write-in space provided. These questions allowed survey participants to personalize their responses.

The final unnumbered section of this survey employed the check box format and asked for demographic information about the person taking the survey. Specific questions include sex, age, level of education, type of degrees earned, years of experience as a photographer, and years of experience as a photography educator. These questions were included to give a better understanding of who, whether similar by description or diverse, were the members of this survey group. Due to the limited survey size and anonymous design, direct correlations between the demographics of the survey participants and their responses were not made. Only general connections between the overall demographic description of the survey group and their responses were of interest in this study.

The following are the questions that were presented to instructors in the survey and connected with the individual research questions they were designed to investigate.

Research Question #1: What is the general level of acceptance that professional photographic educators have about digital imaging?

Research Question #2: Is the relationship between digital photography and traditional techniques an adversarial one? Does one replace the other, or are they still both relevant in vocational photographic training? What traditional aspects are still relevant?

Research Question #3: What are educators in this area currently doing in regards to digital photography? How has their curriculum been re-shaped recently by the new techniques?

Research Question #4: How do educators predict their instruction will change in the future as a result of the new technology driven industry changes?

Research Question #5: What are the core areas in digital photography that instructors should include in their instruction. What do instructors feel are the most important areas of emphasis?

Participants included in this survey were comprised of a panel of experts that were working in a very specialized field of professional photography education in higher education. The physical area of this study was restricted to the four-corners states of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico and Utah. Within this geographic area the study was restricted to higher educational settings that offered professional photography education that is professional or vocational in nature.

The survey group that was selected in the four-corners states is a population that is part of a very large and demographically varied region. The schools that were included in the study are listed in Appendix B. These schools are both private and public institutions and covered the full range of higher educational settings including universities, liberal arts colleges, and community colleges. The communities that these institutions were located are very different and represent a dynamic range. The study groups included schools located in large urban centers like Denver, Salt Lake City and Phoenix, suburban settings like Scottsdale and Ogden, semi-urban rural settings like Farmington, Flagstaff, and Prescott and small rural settings like Show Low and Glenwood Springs. The Physical scope the study covered was thousands of square miles.

Within the states that were included, all known photography programs at universities, colleges, and community colleges were reviewed and analyzed to determine which institutions this study would be appropriate for. It was very important to include only photography programs that had a professional approach to their instruction. This restriction was made not to discredit any programs that do not fall into this category, but is due to the inherent difference in philosophy and program objectives of such curriculum. Schools that met one or more of the following descriptions qualified to be part of this study:

1. If the programs offered a degree or certificate in photography other than art photography.
2. If the variety of coursework that was offered included possible professional applications. The applications that are considered possible segments of professional photography programs are described in Appendix C, the definition of terms section.
3. If there were internship offerings.
4. If the individual programs stated approach and philosophy to photography education was professional in nature.

The list of schools established as being part of the study is listed in Appendix B. The final qualification for this study required that only the full-time instructors at these institutions were to be included. Only full-time faculty was included because of the more official role in curriculum development they held. Because the curricula of these institutions was what this study was designed to identify this restriction was necessary.

Based on the criteria there were a total of twenty-one educators that qualified for this study and, therefore, this is the panel of experts that was included in the study. This panel was a population, not a sample, of all educators that met all qualifications and restrictions to be included in this study. Although this panel size was somewhat limited, the participants were unique because of their membership in this very elite and specialized group.

The survey for this study was sent to the instructors that met all the qualifications as previously described. The surveys were sent with a self-addressed, stamped envelope to facilitate a rapid response and were sent to the instructors’ addresses at their respective educational settings. Prior to the surveys being dispersed an e-mail announcement of the outgoing survey was made and sent to the participants selected for the study. The first set of surveys was sent out on April 15, 2002. A second set was sent out two weeks later, on April 29, 2002, to further the awareness of the participants and give them ample chance to respond. No further correspondence was made with this panel of experts after the second mailing of the survey. With the concluding college semester in May, there was a strong likelihood that the instructors would not able to be reached for a response in the month of May or later. Therefore, correspondence with instructors was concluded April 29, 2002. The responses to this study were received throughout the month of April and the month of May 2002. The survey was officially closed for responses on June 1, 2002.

CHAPTER 4

Results

This chapter presents the results of the surveys that were filled out and returned by the panel of experts. At the conclusion of the survey, fourteen of the original twenty-one photography instructors responded. This is a small response numerically, but when the restricted nature of the survey population is considered the pool of participants is substantial, as sixty-seven percent of the panel of experts originally selected for this study responded.

Each of the numbered questions in this survey (listed in Chapter 3), excluding the questions that are demographic in nature, addresses the research questions that the study was designed to investigate (established in Chapter 1). The results have been tabulated as percentages for the various responses chosen. For clarity and uniformity the percentages are rounded to the nearest whole number whenever possible. Percentages are used because they are a cohesive collection method that has allows for responses to be compared. Each survey question will be identified as to which research question it specifically addressed.

The following Likert Scale questions address this research question:

1) What is the general level of acceptance that professional photographic educators have about digital imaging?

Likert Scale Question # 1:

I am very interested in the recently developed and developing digital technologies relating to photography.

Strongly Agree 43%

Agree 36%

Neutral 21%

Disagree 0%

Strongly Disagree 0%

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 1. Percentage of responses selected for Likert Scale Question #1. Instructors were asked to evaluate the statement "I am very interested in the recently developed and developing digital technologies relating to photography" (n=14).

Likert Scale Question #2:

I think that skills with photographic digital technologies are of value to and will be necessary for future professionals entering the field.

Strongly Agree 64%

Agree 29%

Neutral 7%

Disagree 0%

Strongly Disagree 0%

____________________________________________________________________Figure 2. Percentage of responses selected for Likert Scale #2. Instructors were asked to evaluate their agreement level with the statement "I think that skills with photographic digital technologies are of value to and will be necessary for future professionals entering the field" (n=14).

The following Likert scale and check box questions specifically address the research question:

2) Is the relation between digital photography and traditional techniques an adversarial one? Does one replace the other, or are they still both relevant in vocational photographic training? What traditional aspects are still relevant?

Likert Scale Question #3:

I think that many photographic digital technologies are making traditional photographic techniques obsolete.

Strongly Agree 7%

Agree 36%

Neutral 14%

Disagree 21.5%

Strongly Disagree 21.5%

____________________________________________________________________

Figure 3. Percentage of responses selected for Likert Scale Question #3. Instructors were asked to evaluate their agreement level with the statement "I think that many photographic digital technologies are making traditional photographic techniques obsolete" (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

Likert Scale Question #4:

I think that learning many traditional (non–digital) photographic techniques are no longer an important part of a future photographic professional’s education.

Strongly Agree 0%

Agree 7%

Neutral 0%

Disagree 57%

Strongly Disagree 36%

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 4. Percentage of responses selected for Likert Scale Question #4. Instructors were asked to evaluate their agreement level with the statement "I think that learning traditional (non-digital) photographic techniques are no longer an important part of a future photographic professional’s education" #4 (n=14).

Check Box Question #1:

Of the list below, what photographic processes do you think should only be taught with digital technologies currently?

Image capture 50%

Print making and post production image manipulation 64%

Photography marketing, promotion, and transport 64%

Figure 5. Percentage of responses selected that indicated what aspects of photography that instructors thought should only be taught with digital technologies currently, Check box Question #1 (n=14).

Check Box Question #4:

Of the list below what traditional photographic techniques do you plan to continue to include in your curriculum?

Film as method of image capture in large format photography 79%

Film as method of image capture in medium format photography 86%

Film as method of image capture in small format photography 100%

Black and White printing 93%

Color Positive Printing 43%

Color Negative Printing 57%

Professional portfolio development 100%

Other ______________________ 29%

Other responses include: Many alternative processes, antiquated processes, salt, kallitype, cyanotype, platinum, ect.; special effects; non-silver historic processes, Polaroid.

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 6. Percentage of responses selected that indicated what traditional photographic techniques instructors plan to continue to include in their curricula,

Check box Question #4 (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

Check Box Question #5

Of the areas listed in question number 4 which of these areas do you plan on teaching in both the traditional and digital approaches in the future?

Film as method of image capture in large format photography 64%

Film as method of image capture in medium format photography 71%

Film as method of image capture in small format photography 86%

Black and White printing 79%

Color Positive Printing 50%

Color Negative Printing 71%

Professional portfolio development 93%

Other _______________________ 21%

Other responses include: Same; same as #4, all previously mentioned.

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 7. Percentage of responses selected that indicated the areas previously listed in Check Box Question #4 (Figure 6) that instructors plan on teaching in both the traditional and digital approaches in the future, Check Box Question #5 (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

The following Likert scale and check box questions specifically address this research question:

3) What are educators in this area currently doing in regards to digital photography? How has their curriculum been re-shaped recently by the new techniques?

Likert Scale Question #5:

My instruction has changed recently as a result of digital technologies in photography.

Strongly Agree 14%

Agree 50%

Neutral 7%

Disagree 21%

Strongly Disagree 7%

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 8. Percentage of responses that selected for Likert Scale Question #5. Instructors were asked to indicate a level of agreement to the statement "My instruction has changed recently as a result of digital technologies in photography" (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

Check Box Question # 2:

Of the list below, what areas of digital photography do you currently include in your curriculum?

Image capture 64%

Print making and post production image manipulation 79%

Photography marketing, promotion, and transport 36%

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 9. Percentage of responses selected that indicated the areas of digital photography that instructors currently include in curricula, Check Box Question #2 (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

The following Likert scale and check box questions address this research question:

4) How do educators predict their instruction will change in the future as a result of the new technology driven industry changes?

Likert Scale Question #6:

I predict that my instruction will change extensively in the future as a result of digital photography.

Strongly Agree 14%

Agree 50%

Neutral 22%

Disagree 14%

Strongly Disagree 0%

___________________________________________________________________

Figure 10. Percentage of responses that indicated instructors level of agreement to the statement "I predict that my instruction will change extensively in the future as a

result of digital photography", Likert Scale Question #6 (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

Check Box Question # 3:

Of the list below, what areas in digital photography do you plan on including in your curriculum in the future?

Image capture 86%

Print making and post production image manipulation 93%

Photography marketing, promotion, and transport 64%

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 11. Percentage of categories in digital photography selected that instructors planned on including in curricula in the future, Check Box Question #3 (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

The following check box questions address the research question:

5) What are the core areas in digital photography that instructors should include in their instruction? What do instructors feel are the most important areas of emphasis?

Check Box Question #6:

What do you believe are the core digital instructional areas and techniques that need to be included in photographic education currently?

Image capture 86%

Image manipulation and preparation for final form, 86%

including PhotoShop skills

Film scanning 100%

Print making 100%

Image storage and archiving 71%

Digital promotion and delivery of imagery through web design 71%

Digital promotion and delivery of imagery through disk and/or CDR form 71%

Other _____________________________________________ 21%

Other responses include: History and ethics (selected twice); theory; color management, ICC profiling.

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 12. Percentage of categories of digital photography selected that instructors felt were the core digital instructional areas and techniques that need to be included in photography curricula, Check Box Question #6 (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

Check Box Question #7:

Of those areas listed in the previous question, what do you believe will be the core digital instructional areas in the recent future?

Image capture 79%

Image manipulation and preparation for final form, 79%

including PhotoShop skills

Film scanning 79%

Print making 71%

Image storage and archiving 86%

Digital promotion and delivery of imagery through web design 71%

Digital promotion and delivery of imagery through disk and/or CDR form 71%

Other __________________________________ 36%

Other responses include: Theory, ethics, history; color management.

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 13. Percentage of areas in digital photography selected that instructors believed would be the core digital instructional areas in the recent future, Check Box Question #7 (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

This section was included in the study to simply give a general description of who comprised the panel of experts. These questions were all presented in a check box format with the possibility for multiple responses in some questions. Like the pervious section, results have been rounded to the nearest whole number.

Male 79%

Female 21%

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 14. Percentage of instructors that were male or female (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

Between the age of 20 - 30 0%

Between the age of 31 - 40 14%

Between the age of 41 - 50 14%

Between the age of 51 - 60 65%

Between the age of 61 – 70 7%

Over 71 0%

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 15. Percentage of instructors that were part of the provided age ranges in years (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

1 – 5 years 14%

6 – 10 years 0%

11 – 20 years 29%

Over 20 years 57%

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 16. Percentage of instructors that had been teaching photography in the provided range in years (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

1 – 5 years 7%

6 – 10 years 0%

11 – 20 years 7%

Over 20 years 71%

Did not respond 15%

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 17. Percentage of instructors that had been working as professional photographers in the provided ranges in years (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

Bachelor’s 14%

Master’s 7%

Master’s plus additional coursework 65%

Doctoral 14%

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 18. Percentage of the level of education instructors held (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

B. F. A. 14% M. S. 7%

B. A. 43% M. A. 36%

B. S. 29% Ph. D. 14%

M. F. A. 29% Ed. D. 0%

M. E. 7% Other 7%

_____________________________________________________________________

Figure 19. Percentages of the degrees held by the instructors (n=14).

_____________________________________________________________________

Based on the data previously collected and organized in this chapter each research question can be specifically addressed. The following will interpret how the findings answer each of the research questions this study was designed to investigate. In addition, some general observations will be presented about the demographics of the survey group.

Research Question #1: What is the general level of acceptance that professional photographic educators have about digital imaging? Both of the questions that were presented in the survey that addressed Research Question #1 had a nearly overwhelmingly positive response. In Likert Scale Question #1 (see Figure 1) The instructors demonstrated a strong interest in developing digital technologies in their responses. The highest rated response was with 43% of the survey participants stating that they Strongly Agree to the statement with responses in the Agree category of 36% and Neutral 21%. Responses were not recorded in the negative side of the scale at all including Disagree or Strongly Disagree responses. The instructors also stated in Likert Scale Question #2 (See Figure 2), that they felt that digital technologies relating to photography are of value and are a necessary part of photography education. Selections were made at a rate of 64% that Strongly Agree response to the statement provided, 29% said that they Agree, and 7% were Neutral. Similar to the previous question, the respondents did not select any of the responses on the negative side of the scale.

Research Question #2: Is the relationship between digital photography and traditional techniques an adversarial one? Does one replace the other, or are they still both relevant in vocational photographic training? What traditional aspects are still relevant? Likert Scale Question #3 (shown in Figure 3) specifically investigated if instructors thought that digital technology is replacing traditional practices. The response to this question is varied and not as one sided like the previous questions. The largest response to the question was that the respondents Agree to the question with a 36% selection. Every response that was available to be selected was. The second highest response being at 21% with both the Disagree and Strongly Disagree selections made. The instructors are truly spilt on this issue.

The next question addressing Research Question #2 was Likert Scale Question #4 (see Figure 4). It asked if instructors believed that traditional techniques were no longer important in photography education. Nearly all the instructors were in opposition to this statement. The highest rated selection was Disagree at 57% with the second highest response of Strongly Disagree at 36%. The only response that was not negative in nature for this selection was 7% selecting Agree. With the strong negative response to this question it is clear that overall, instructors still find value in teaching the traditional photographic methods other than digital almost overwhelmingly.

Check Box Survey Question #1 (see Figure 5) asked instructors to comment on which areas they planned to only teach using digital photography in the future. Of the three areas provided all were selected at a rate of 50% or higher. These responses seem to conflict with the responses to the questions that are represented in Figure 4, Figure 6 and Figure 7. Well over half of instructors surveyed, As shown in Figure 4, planned on continuing to teach non-digital photography. Figure 6 demonstrated that nearly all the traditional photographic techniques would continue to be included in curricula. Figure 7 shows that instructors planned to teach many aspects of photography incorporating both digital and traditional methods. After making these comparisons it seems likely that the instructors must not have understood the phrasing in this question based on their responses. The only analysis that can be reached upon reviewing this question is that some of the practices that are more traditional by description may be discontinued and be replaced by digital applications. Unfortunately, based off of the information that was gathered from this question, and comparing to the other questions in this survey, no clear category or practice within photography could be identified as an area that will be taught with only a digital approach.

Check Box Question #4 (Figure 6) asked the instructors to identify specific areas relating to photography that they planned on continuing to teach using traditional methods. Check Box Question #5 (Figure 7) asked instructors what areas they plan on teaching using both traditional and digital methods combined in the future. The percentages for the various categories in both questions are too numerous to review individually, but in general the responses have implications. In both questions all categories were selected at a rate of over 50% accept for Color Positive Printing, at 43%, in Check Box Question #4 (Figure 6) and the boxes provided in both questions that allowed the instructors to select Other and write in a personalized answer. In fact, most responses in both questions were well over 50% in their response. These questions clearly establish that photography educators plan on continuing to teach many traditional methods in addition to incorporating new digital techniques into their curriculums. In fact, if Figure 6 and Figure 7 are compared in nearly every category, the traditional approaches listed are received higher response than techniques that will be taught with both digital and traditional methods. . The comparison of these two questions (Figure 6 and Figure 7) is illustrated in Figure 20. The only two categories that were slightly lower were color positive printing and color negative printing, as shown in Figure 20. No silver-based photographic practices that were listed in this survey seem to be in any immediate danger of being completely replaced in the surveyed schools by digital methods. Based on the comparison in Figure 20, it can even be speculated that in most photography programs the traditional approach will continue to be the primary method taught.

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Figure 20. Compares percentages of responses to questions shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7, Figure 6 includes methods that were planned to be taught by traditional methods, Figure 7 includes methods that were planned to be taught using both traditional and digital methods (n=14).

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Research Question #3: What are educators in this area currently doing in regards to digital photography? How has or their curriculums been re-shaped recently by the new techniques? Likert Scale Question #5 (Figure 8), asks instructors if their instruction has changed recently as a result of digital technologies. The answer to this question was primarily that it had at some level, but that level is varied. The highest rated response was at 50% with the Agree selection, but the second highest response was with the Disagree selection at 21%. Strongly Agree was the third highest rated response at 14%. The survey question results indicate that a majority of instructors have had changes in their instruction as a result of digital photography, but not everyone in this study has had changes.

Check Box Question #2, shown in Figure 9, asked instructors to identify the areas that they are teaching currently using digital photography. The question provided three general categories to be selected from. All three categories did receive a substantial response. The highest rated response was Print making and post-production image manipulation at 79%. This is practically an overwhelming response to this category when compared to other questions. Not every instructor involved with the survey is using digital photography in his or her program currently as shown in Figure 9. It can be speculated that every instructor that had recently included digital techniques into their curriculum were teaching in this category of print making and post-production. The second highest rated response was in Image Capture with a 64% response. The area is also being quite widely taught. The lowest rating of the three categories, and therefore the least emphasized area when this study was administered was Photography marketing, promotion, and transport at only a 36% selection.

Research Question #4: How do educators predict their instruction will change in the future as a result of the new technology driven industry changes? Likert Scale Question #6 (Figure 10) asked instructors at what level they predict their instruction will change in the future. None of the participants selected Strongly Disagree to the question. This shows an acknowledgement by all these instructors that at the very least there may be some changes as a result to digital photography in the future. The highest rated response to the question was at 50% with the Agree selection and second highest rated response was with the Neutral selection at 21%. Clearly, further incorporation of digital photography in these instructors’ curricula is planned at some level and in many cases that level is quite high.

Check Box Question #3 (Figure 11) gave instructors three general areas in of digital photography to choose from that they plan on including in their programs in the future. All three selections received high percentages with Print making and post production image manipulation at 93%, Image capture at 86% and finally Photography marketing, promotion, and transport at 64%. The responses clearly indicated widespread development of digital practices in photography education in the recent future. This question was purposely provided with the same possible responses as Check box question #2 (Figure 9) that asked instructors what they are doing currently with digital photography so a comparison could be made. The average increase in percentage of response to these categories was 21%. Figure 21 illustrates this comparison. Based off of the average increase it can be speculated that all digital photographic techniques will experience development in curriculums in professional photography programs in the future. With a rating of 93% for the category of Print making and post production image manipulation this is the most stressed category and should be present in practically every professional photography program.

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Figure 21. Compares the aspects of digital photography instructors were including in curricula (Figure 9) and what they planned to include in the future (Figure 11) (n=14).

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Research Question #5: What are the core areas in digital photography that instructors should include in their instruction. What do instructors feel are the most important areas of emphasis? Both Check Box Questions # 6 and # 7 (Figure 12 and Figure 13) asked instructors to select specific categories that they felt defined the core areas in digital photography. The only difference in the two questions is that Check Box Question #6 (Figure 12) asked what are the core areas currently and Check Box Question #7 (Figure 13) asked the instructors to predict the core areas in the future. For both questions every selection that was provided was chosen at a very high rate with a range of 71%-100%. The Other response that allowed survey participants to personalize their answers was the only category in each question below 71% with a rating of 21% in Check Box Question #6 (Figure 12) and 36% in Check Box Question #7 (Figure 13). Every response that was available in the survey was considered by these instructors to be important aspects in digital photography currently and will continue to be important in the future. When comparing the two questions it is interesting to note a minor decline in rating for future application concerned with the first four possible responses. These responses included Image Capture, Image manipulation and preparation for final form including PhotoShop skills, and Film Scanning, and Print-making. The only category that had an increase in its selection, other than the other box, was Image storage and archiving it went from 71% up to 86%. The categories that followed, Digital promotion and delivery of imagery through web design, and Digital promotion and delivery of imagery through disk and/or CDR form, both maintained their rating of 71%. Because of the high ratings of all the responses provided it can be concluded that all choices can be considered core curricular areas in digital photography both currently and in the future. Interestingly, the largest areas of emphasis are Film scanning and Print making which received perfect scores of 100%, as shown in Figure 12. Figure 22 illustrates the comparison of the responses to these two questions.

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Figure 22. Comparison between the instructional areas in digital photography that instructors thought were core areas currently (Figure 12) and what that thought would be the core areas in the future (Figure 13) (n=14).

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The data collected about whom comprised the panel of experts that generated interesting information. Based on this data an overall profile of who a typical member of this survey was. By relating this profile to the results of the study gives further meaning to the information it has generated.

Most of the instructors currently teaching photography are Male, 79% as seen in Figure 14. The largest age range that the instructors were part of was between the ages of 51 and 60, 65% of respondents surveyed as shown in Figure 15. Most of the instructors are have extensive experience with teaching photography. Survey participants stated at a rate of 57% that they had been teaching for over 20 years, as shown in Figure 16. Nearly all have been working as photographers in addition to teaching for a very long time as well. Of the instructors that responded, 71% stated that they have been working as professional photographers for over 20 years, as shown in Figure 17. The instructors’ level of education is typically a Master’s with additional coursework, this response was selected at a rate of 65% as shown in Figure 18. There educational background is also very diverse with the two most popular degrees held being a Bachelors of Art at 43% and a Masters of Art at 36% as illustrated in Figure 19. A Bachelors of Science is the second most popular undergraduate degree that instructors held at a rate of 29% (Figure 19). A Masters of Fine Art is the second most popular graduate degree held by instructors at a rate of 29% (Figure 19).

A description of a typical member of this panel of experts can be described as a middle-aged man with 20 years or more both teaching photography and practicing professional photography. The typical member also has a level of education that is a Masters or higher with a Masters of Art or Masters of Fine Art. Looking at this profile it is clear to see that this panel was highly qualified. A typical member of this panel of experts was a very appropriate person to respond to the questions posed by this study. Not only does a typical panel member have a high level training but that person has been involved with photography education and professional photography for many years. It could be speculated that 20 or more years of experience teaching that a typical panel member has might create an instructional atmosphere that is not progressive and possibly resistant to digital photography. By looking at the responses to survey questions such as the questions illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2 this does not seem to be the case. Typical survey participants are interested in digital photographic technologies and adding them to curricula. Possibly the 20 plus years of involvement in practicing professional photography by a typical panel member has offset the likelihood of an instructor being set in his or her way of teaching and has fostered this more progressive mindset.

CHAPTER 5

Summary, Conclusions and Implications

This purpose of this study was to investigate the current and predicted professional photographic instruction of digital photography in the higher educational settings. Another primary interest in the study was the attitudes of the instructors about new photographic techniques and if they think traditional techniques and practices are being eliminated as a result of digitally based photography. The goal of the study was to establish a core curriculum in relation to digital photography that would narrow down all the various applications into the "must teach" areas currently for professional photographic education.

Chapter Two, review of literature, addressed the issues and research questions that were being investigated in this study. The review of literature gives a prospective of the photography industry that could be a valid consideration when professional photography educators design their curriculums. This review combined with the information gathered through the survey of instructors defined areas of importance in regards to digital photography and professional photographic education.

A survey was sent out that addressed the various research questions to all full-time instructors in higher educational settings in the four-corners states. The instructors were identified based on their program offerings and course descriptions. The instructors comprised a very exclusive group and were considered as panel of experts within their field of professional photographic education. The survey group only included twenty-one instructors, but there was a large percentage of responses to the study making it a good representation of this elite group. Fourteen of the twenty-one instructors replied making the total response 67%, or 2/3rds, of the original group selected. The survey was sent by mail and included Likert Scale-style questions, check box-style questions, and questions that were demographic in nature. The responses to the survey questions were collected, recorded and transferred into percentages. The information gathered has been compared and analyzed.

The results of the study established that instructors were interested in and see educational value in nearly all aspects of digital photography. Curriculum involving digital photography was included in nearly all the programs that were part of the study and will continue to grow in its use and practice. The panel of experts retained their interest and belief that traditional photographic techniques are still relevant and important in their programs, but some traditional photographic techniques were viewed as becoming obsolete in professional practice. Most of these techniques will continue to be incorporated in curricula in these programs. All aspects that were identified as possible core instructional areas for digital photography currently and in the recent future were selected at such a high rate that they were all established as core instructional areas, as illustrated in Figure 12 and Figure 13.

From the responses to the various questions that were presented to the panel of experts and other research included in this study some general conclusions in relation to the research questions investigated can be made.

For Research Question #1, What is the general level of acceptance that professional photographic educators have about digital imaging?

The level of acceptance is high to very high. Nearly everyone surveyed has an interest in digital imaging and has a belief in its credibility and necessity in their institutions.

For Research Question #2, Is the relation between digital photography and traditional techniques an adversarial one? Does one replace the other, or are they still both reliant in vocational photographic training? What traditional aspects are still relevant?

The relation between digital photography and other well-established techniques are not adversarial. Most instructors plan on continuing their instruction with silver-based photography in a wide variety of areas in the recent future. Although some instructors may believe that the digital practices are making traditional ones obsolete they still place value in traditional practices.

No one specific traditional photographic process or category was identified as being discontinued in practice in the institutions represented in this survey. Based on the photography industry perspective as defined in Chapter 2, the traditional practice of using film as a method of image capture will not become obsolete in the foreseeable future.

For Research Question #3, What are educators in this area currently doing in regards to digital photography? How has or has their curriculum been re-shaped recently by the new techniques?

Nearly all instructors have experienced some level of change as a result of digital imaging. Therefore, the largest and most emphasized area in regards to digital photography being taught currently falls under the general description of Print making and post-production image manipulation.

At some level, nearly all photography instructors plan on making changes in their curriculums in the future. In the institutions that were surveyed every category of digital imaging this study provided will be included at some degree. In addition, selections made by the instructors indicate a planned elevation of instruction with digital photography in the future. Print making and post-production image manipulation will be the most widely developed of the three major categories of digital imaging supplied by this study.

For Research Question #5, What are the core areas in digital photography that instructors should include in their instruction. What do instructors feel are the most important areas of emphasis?

No specific segments could be completely established as the most important instructional area in regards to digital imaging and photography from this study. Nearly all survey choices were selected at such a high frequency that they could all be described as "core instructional areas" both currently and in the future. Conversely, none of the possible areas of digital photography could be excluded as core instructional areas either; every aspect included for selection in the survey therefore has importance.

Some categories in digital photography were stressed slightly more than others and could be considered the most critical core instructional areas. The areas that were chosen at the highest rates were film scanning and print-making. In fact, for Check Box Question #6, as shown in Figure 12, both of these areas were selected as core instructional areas by a perfect response of 100%. Therefore, these two areas can be established as definitely being core instructional aspects of digital photography.

The survey also produced results that reinforced the establishment and emphasis on film scanning and print-making as core instructional areas by survey questions that were not designed originally for this purpose. Specifically, the highest rated category for Check Box Question #2, as shown in Figure 9, was with the response "Print making and post production image manipulation" selected at a rate of 79%. This question asked instructors what general categories of digital photography they currently include in curricula. Both film scanning and print-making are considered part of this general category. In addition, in Check Box Question #3, as shown in Figure 11, the same category of "Print making and post production manipulation" received the most frequently selected response with a rate of 93%. This question asked instructors what areas of digital photography they planned on including in their curricula in the future.

In conclusion, it is clear that every aspect of digital photography that was addressed in the study was considered core instructional areas to the instructors that were surveyed. The two specific categories of film scanning and print-making were the most important of these core instructional areas.

Based on the survey results it is clear the development of all digital practices and their importance in photography education will continue to be elevated in the future. To accommodate this elevation of digital photography, photography labs and facilities at the schools included in this study will need to be updated and restructured. Maintaining established labs and developing and maintaining new ones are a challenge facing these instructors.

Any professional photography instructor that is resistant to using the new technologies and incorporating them into his or her program is now in the minority among his or her peers. Growth in importance and practice of digital photography in higher education is established by this study. If an instructor teaching professional photography wants to maintain an instructional level with his of her peers then implementation of digital photographic technologies into curricula is necessary. Instructors that have avoided using digital technologies in their instruction will not be able to completely avoid this new facet of photography for much longer.

The study indicated that many of the traditional photographic practices would continue to be a part of many of these instructors’ curricula. There was also some acknowledgement made by the instructors that digital photography may make some traditional practices obsolete in the future. If traditional photography techniques are going to be included by the majority of instructors regardless of whether some of the techniques are being replaced professionally by newer practices, then they must have an educational value besides their direct application in the workplace. The value that traditional practices may have in the future for education might be to give students a diverse variety of creative and foundational experiences to draw from. Concepts about traditional techniques may also transfer learning into digital photography.

Based on the data collected digital photography will have an increased role in education and traditional techniques will not be discontinued or replaced. Because both categories will maintain importance in photography programs students will have a more diverse learning experience than ever before. Instead of one type of photography replacing the other in educational settings digital technologies will expand what is currently being taught. Implementation digital techniques and balancing these techniques with traditional ones will be an individual challenge for all professional photography instructors in the future. Each instructor will need to decide how to most effectively approach this challenging and developing issue. Unfortunately, making suggestions on instructional design is beyond the scope of this study.

The survey included questions that asked instructors to identify instructional areas in both in traditional silver-based approaches as well as digital ones. When reviewing the responses to all of these questions it can be stated that all responses were selected with great frequency. Because of this high rate of frequency, it is apparent that instructors that took part in this survey are indeed teaching many of the same practices in their respective schools. The similar responses to survey questions may verify similar educational goals. With this popularity of responses to the survey questions it can be established that the survey, by design, successfully identified many of the core instructional areas in professional photography education, whether digital of traditional.

In concluding this study there are still many aspects that could be expanded upon to further understanding of digital photography in education. These are suggestions for further research that could strengthen the understanding of the practice and implementation of digital photography in professional higher educational settings.

1. The scope of the study. Although this study has been rightfully restricted to include only full-time instructors that are involved with professional photographic education, more instructors meeting that description could be included in a study of this design. The four-corners states are a large and demographically varied region, but this study was somewhat narrow in its scope. Therefore, to make statements and conclusions about the topic at a national level would be speculation. A study that included at least 100 participants that teach in every major geographic region in the United States would create a better perspective of national trends.
2. Redesigning questions that seek to identify instructional areas. Establishing a short list of the most important curricular areas in digital photography and established traditional methods was one of the original desired results of this study. The design of the check box style questions in the survey allowed instructors to make as many selections to each question as they desired, but did not force them to make any judgement as to which responses they felt were the most important. Therefore, a narrowing down of the most important aspects of digital photography and traditional photographic practices was not completely established. A research design for these check box questions that asks survey participants to prioritize the boxes that they select might make it easier to determine what areas are considered the most significant.
3. An industry or future employer perspective. In addition to the survey distributed, if a similar survey was given to the possible future employers and established professionals in the photographic field a truly vocational curriculum could be established. Comparisons between the industry’s view and academic thought on this topic would create useful outcomes.

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