1. British Policies and Attitudes were important in framing the nature of the Indian nationalist responses to colonialism. We need to pay attention to:

a. The way in which administrative measures such as the CENSUS operations created new social and political categories which Indians often adopted.

b. How these administrative measures were in turn conditioned by certain British PRECONCEPTIONS about the nature of Indian society. For instance, the idea that India was fundamentally a RELIGIOUS society was based on the ideas of earlier ORIENTALIST interpretation of India, as indeed was the British understanding of the nature of Indian religions themselves.

c. Colonial POLICIES were often a result of such understandings of Indian society, but POLITICAL considerations of pitting one group against another also played a part in the making of policy. This is best exemplified by the decision to create separate electorates for Indian Muslims and in the decision to partition Bengal in 1905.

d. The post-1857 growth in attitudes of racial exclusivity, the emergence of "scientific racism," and the consequent denigration of the aspirations of the educated Indians, contributed to disaffection among the emerging Indian middle class. This group was to play a prominent role in articulating different strands of Indian nationalism.
 

2. Cultural nationalism asserted an "Indian" cultural identity distinct from and often in competition with, the British.

a. Cultural nationalism almost always focused on strengthening the RELIGIOUS COMMUNITY, and in doing so worked within certain colonial definitions of Indian society

b. REFORMERS and REVIVALISTS alike however, shared the quest to create a STRONGER INDIA so as to CHALLENGE British supremacy.

c. Hindu and Muslim social reform and religious revivalist movements parallel one another. Hindu reformers like RANADE and Muslim reformers like SAYYID AHMAD KHAN faced opposition from more conservative revivalist opinion.

d. Many of the "cultural nationalists" cannot be easily categorized as either reformist or revivalists.
 

3. Political Nationalism

a. British decision to institute local elected bodies for financial reasons leads to the emergence of local politics, with the Indian middle class taking a leading role. Early CIVIC association emerge in larger cities, e.g. the Sarvajanik Sabha in Poona, the Indian Association of Calcutta etc.

b. The growth of communications, with newspapers, telegraph, and railways helps create links between middle class leaders of different cities.

c. Different individuals and organizations come together for the creation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885.

d. The INC is dominated by "moderates" in the early years, though by the end of the nineteenth century, there is demand for more "extremist" political strategies too.
 

4. Religious Nationalism

a. The "nation" was often defined in religious terms by early Indian nationalists, once again suggesting the extent to which these men remained trapped within colonial categories.

b. Early Hindu or Muslim nationalism did not necessarily emerge in opposition to each other, but to strengthen these "nations" vis-a-vis the British.

c. But some early Muslim reformers like Sayyid Ahmad Khan did warn of the danger of Muslim interests being "swamped" by the Hindu majority in the INC.

d. The increasingly militant Hindu tone of the "extremists" within the INC in the early 1900s alienates some Muslim leaders.

e. The Muslim League, a party claiming to represent the interests of Indian Muslims, is formed in 1906, with some support from British officials.

f. Increasing political activity by the INC and the British decision to play the "divide and rule" game, may be some of the reasons why Bengal was partitioned in 1905, and "separate electorates" for Muslims granted in the 1909 reforms.
 

5. Limitations of early Indian nationalism.

a. Despite the claim to speak for all of India, or all Hindus or Muslims, most of these nationalisms have a very limited social base.

b. Almost all early nationalists are URBAN based, MALES belonging to the UPPER CLASSES or CASTES, who were trying to represent themselves as the new INDIAN MIDDLE CLASS.

c. Because of their social position, education, etc., these men believed they knew what was best for the country, and tried to shape and direct the lives of others.

d. Very often, though not always, popular nationalisms took directions that were different from the outlook of middle class leaders. Thus peasant or tribal revolts often worked in very different ways.

e. A major task of the middle class leaders in the future was to try and INCORPORATE as well as CONTROL popular expressions of nationalism.

This is the context you need to understand the political developments that occurred around the partition of BENGAL in 1905.

        Important dates:
           1890s Early "Extremist" politics, e.g. Tilak (Ganapati festival 1894, Shivaji Festival 1896).

           1905 Partition of Bengal,.

           1905-07 "Swadeshi" movement. Boycott British goods, self sufficiency. But also coercion    and bombs.

           1906 Formation of the Muslim League.

          1907 Split between Moderates and Extremists at the Surat Congress.

1909 Indian Councils Act (Morley-Minto Reforms). Limited political reforms. Separate representation for     Muslims, landholders, etc. Moderates back in control of the INC.