Running Head:  COMPUTER ASSISTED

Computer Assisted Language Learning

Literature Review
Presented to:
The ETC Faculty

In Partial Fulfillment of
ETC 695
Summer 2003
Northern Arizona University

By
Victoria Pettit
June 10, 2003

Abstract
A well-designed computer assisted language learning system can be a marvelous tool to employ in our attempts to make our students more literate.  The key is that the program must be relevant, interesting and challenging.  Towards this end, one must understand the audience and their needs.  With this in mind, I first discuss certain aspects of the English as Second Language (ESL) student. Secondly, I address issues related to computer-assisted instruction.  Finally, I explore applications of computer-assisted instruction for second language learners.   

Computer Assisted Language Learning
“Computer-assisted language learning is a research field which explores the use of computational methods and techniques as well as new media for language learning and teaching.” (Gamper & Knapp, 2002, p. 329). 
In developing computer-assisted learning products, one must have a thorough understanding of computer-assisted instruction, multimedia development, software and hardware.  Computer-assisted language learning products (CALL), require the additional knowledge areas of language and culturally different ways of learning.   
For my capstone project, I prepared an interactive CD-Rom for second language learners.  Here, I will present my investigation of the use of computer-assisted language learning systems and the underlying theories.  I have focused on three areas: students of English as a second language, computer-assisted instruction and computer-assisted language instruction.  All of these theories rely on a constructivist philosophy and therefore a brief review of constructivism is also included.
Constructivism
Constructivism is the underlying theory behind computer-assisted instruction. Additionally, constructivism is essential to effective second language learning.  
Constructivism is concerned with how we construct knowledge.  How one constructs knowledge is a function of the prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that one uses to interpret objects and events.  Constructivism does not preclude the existence of an external reality; it merely claims that each of us constructs our own reality through interpreting perceptual experiences of the external world (Jonassen 1991, p. 10).
Most of us remember from our educational histories sitting passively in a quiet classroom, in which all talking was discouraged and, on occasion, punished.  We listened to the teacher, and recited back word for word, as a group.  While as future teachers and in my opinion, overachievers as a group, we did well on tests; this mimetic approach to learning did little to help us build understanding.
Constructivists view the students as active participants in learning and builders of knowledge.  In a constructivist classroom, instruction is individualized.  Attempts are made to stimulate prior learning, to bring meaning and relevance and to build connections.  Students have choices in their ways of learning and, to a limited extent, in their curriculum.  Students seek out information and understanding.  They work to refine knowledge and skills.  They are not passive by any means.  (Kafai & Resnick, 1996) 
I retrieved the following list from an Internet site entitled “What is Constructivism?”  I believe this list precisely summarizes constructivism:
•	Emphasizes learning and not teaching 
•	Encourages and accepts learner autonomy and initiative 
•	Sees learners as creatures of will and purpose 
•	Thinks of learning as a process 
•	Encourages learner inquiry 
•	Acknowledges the critical role of experience in learning 
•	Nurtures learner’s natural curiosity 
•	Takes the learner's mental model into account 
•	Emphasizes performance and understanding when assessing learning 
•	Bases itself on the principles of the cognitive theory 
•	Makes extensive use of cognitive terminology such as predict, create and analyze 
•	Considers how the student learns 
•	Encourages learners to engage in dialogue with other students and the teacher 
•	Supports co-operative learning 
•	Involves learners in real world situations 
•	Emphasizes the context in which learning takes place 
•	Considers the beliefs and attitudes of the learner 
•	Provides learners the opportunity to construct new knowledge and understanding from authentic experience

English as a Second Language
	Many of us have taken courses in high school or college to learn French or Spanish or some other language.  But how much do we remember?  For many, the answer is: not much!   In previous years, the theory of teaching the second language learner has traditionally focused on grammatical correctness and vocabulary.  This “drill and kill” scenario did little to help us to become proficient in a second language.
Constructivism
	This theory of teaching a second language is now changing.  Incorporating a constructivist philosophy, many teachers of second language learners are now focusing their instruction towards real world communication.  Using this communicative approach, teachers are choosing activities for their students that are relevant and in context (Geres, 2000).
Contextual
	Kang and Dennis (1995) conducted a study of vocabulary acquisition.  They conducted the study using South Korean, 5th grade, English language learners.  In their study, they formed three groups.  The first group received a vocabulary word, as well as its definition.  The second group received the vocabulary word, the definition and a picture.  The final study group received the definition and the picture.  Additionally, this group was presented with the word used in context.  Initially, the second group, who received the definition and the picture, outscored the other two groups.  After a period of adjustment, however, the third group that had the added benefit of having the word used in context, surpassed the other two groups.  Additionally, in a test for retention conducted at the end of the study, the third group significantly outperformed the other two groups.    This study was made possible with the use of CALL systems (Ybarra, 2003).
Cultural Differences
	As Driscoll points out, “Members of different cultures, because of the specific and unique demands of living in their societies, make sense of their experiences in different ways.” (as cited in Geres, 2000). Many studies have shown that cultural influences affect how people see the world, how they think, how they learn and how they problem solve.  As Geres (2000) writes: “If instructional designers and software developers follow a constructivist philosophy, then it seems reasonable to consider culturally different ways of knowing that might influence multiple realities.”  If truly individualized instruction is to occur, an individual’s culture must be considered.
Computer Assisted Instruction
Advances in computer technology and wider access to that technology provides means for more authentically integrating computer-assisted instruction (CAI) in all subject areas.   As Baker, Hale & Gifford (1997) stated: 
Compared with students enrolled in conventionally taught courses, students who are provided regular access to well-crafted computer-mediated instructional (CMI) materials generally achieve higher scores on summary examinations (improved learner effectiveness), learn their lessons in less time (increased learner efficiency), like their classes more (greater learner engagement) and develop more positive attitudes toward the discipline under inquiry (enhanced learner interest).  These results hold for a broad range of students, stretching from elementary to college students, studying across a broad range of disciplines….  These findings also hold for students who vary greatly in terms of their prior knowledge, educational experiences, preferences for particular types of instructional assistance and English language proficiency.
Constructivism
CAI incorporates a constructivist philosophy by individualizing instruction, accommodating different learning styles, and providing immediate feedback. “Technology is most powerful when used with constructivist teaching approaches that emphasize problem solving, concept development, and critical thinking…” (Sandholtz, Ringstaff & Dwyer, 1997, p. 174).
Motivation
CAI has been shown to be more motivational for students.  The evaluation report of a computer-assisted reading instruction study conducted at Alberta Vocational College – Calgary (1996), shows that like other similar studies: “students enjoy working with computers, and in many instances, appear to be more highly motivated to complete their academic tasks.”   
From the 1985 ACOT project, participants discovered the following: 
“This difference in the delivery of the content translated into increased student interest and attention.  Teachers now were able to use the technology to enhance student motivation and interest while decreasing the number of discipline problems.  Students spent more time on task and even asked for additional work on the computer. The increased student motivation extended beyond the classroom.  A ninth-grade student surprised her teacher by sharing a tip she had read in a computer magazine the night before” (Sandholtz et al., 1997, p. 71).
Individualized Instruction
Kenji Kitao (1993), building on Altman’s philosophy regarding individualization, proposes five areas in which individualism in the classroom can take place.  These five areas are: objectives, methods, pace, content, and level of difficulty.  Each of these can be individualized for a student, to some degree, in each classroom.  Some areas, like pace, are easy to individualize; whereas some of the others are more difficult.  The use of CAI makes this task much easier for the teacher.  “Computers also enabled teachers to individualize instruction in many subject areas.  Students could work through material at their own pace because the technology made it possible for teachers to manage a range of instruction.” (Sandholtz et al., 1997, p. 70).  In the Dalgish (1985) study, detailed below, the program written especially for this study allows for customization depending upon the students’ first language and areas of difficulty. 
Immediate feedback
Giving immediate feedback is an important aspect of CAI.  While teachers may be busy with other students or other tasks, the computer is always available to provide feedback.  This immediacy allows students to evaluate their answers while those answers are still fresh in their minds.  It helps to prevent those students from repeating those same mistakes until they become habits (Kitao, 1993).
	This feedback is essential for students to know how they are doing and what they still need to work on.  As one ACOT teacher reported:  ‘The students were catching on to the fact …. That sometimes slips by them when each students does not have the opportunity to have immediate feedback.’ (Sandholtz et al., 1997, p. 69).
Adding to the picture, the current generation of students (n-gens) has a strong sense of independence and autonomy.  Additionally, they live in a real-time world where communication is immediate. Many have no concept of what it is like to write a letter and eagerly await the response (Tapscott, 1998).  

Learning style
	Technology is only one tool among many.  It should be used only when it is the most appropriate means of reaching a learning goal.  Visual and audio presentation may help many learners, especially second language learners.
Computer Assisted Instruction for Second Language Learners
	The school population in the United States is becoming less English proficient as we face greater immigration than ever before.  Additionally, this new influx to our population is ever more transient.  It is this population that has the greatest difficulty in becoming proficient in their new language.  “Students learning a new language need as much language support as possible.” (Ybarra, 2003).   
	CAI can be used as a supplemental teaching tool in ESL situations.  This new area of research is called computer-assisted instruction for second language learners (CALL).  CALL can be authentically integrated into all areas of language.  Several types of software are being used in computer-assisted literacy instruction.  These include tutorials, simulations, word processing, games, databases and spreadsheets.  Digital audio and video and other forms of multimedia are also being employed (Huss, 1990).
Verbal interaction
	An example of where CALL can be used to simulate verbal interaction is in the storybooks.  There are books that have sound files, which can allow the computer to read the story aloud and the text is highlighted as the story moves along.  These on-line books use visuals and sound effects to help students to read along.  
Vocabulary development
	Vocabulary development is a major issue for second language learners.  As Kang and Dennis (1995) wrote: “Any attempt to treat vocabulary learning as learning of isolated facts will certainly not promote real vocabulary knowledge.”  CALL can be used to present students with vocabulary in context, and with graphics and with sound files where they can hear a word spoken.  
Grammar
	In a study of 350 ESL students conducted by Gerard Dalgish (1985) at Baruch College, City University of New York, he used computer-assisted research to determine the most common grammatical errors made.  The results were fascinating in that he was able to isolate common grammatical errors based on a student’s primary language.  
	Recognizing that most CALL systems were either too expensive, too juvenile, or otherwise out of consideration, he developed his own program. The program has two features, not known to exist together in any other CALL program. First, is the ability to randomly generate sentences.   This allows the students to avoid the “canned” phrases so common to CALL systems.  Additionally, this software allows for branching.  That is, the program can determine a path designed especially for native speakers of each language.  This allows for individualized instruction in the areas where they find the most difficulty.
Reading
	In the study of ESL readers at Calgary (1996), the trend effect, though statistically insignificant, was a gain in reading performance by some groups using CAI programs: Autoskill or PLATO.  In this study, low-level readers appeared to make the largest gains when using CAI programs.  Additionally, it should be noted that when CAI was more fully integrated with instruction, there were stronger positive effects on student performance.  
Some of the benefits of computer-assisted reading instruction include immediate feedback and the ever-important additional practice.  In the Calgary (1996) study, most students reported enjoying the experience.
Writing
	Writing is perhaps the most difficult aspect of learning a new language.  In 1996, Mireia Trench conducted a case study of three students studying Spanish as their second language. (as cited in Ybarra & Green (2003).  The goal of the case study was to improve writing skills. The students voluntarily engaged in an e-mail exchange with their instructor.  Each of the students approached the task in a different way.  One chose to write everything with paper first, while the others typed their response first and then used editing features.  Because the students were able to see the incoming message on the screen while responding to it, they were able to include phrases from the teacher’s message in their response.  All relied heavily on dictionaries for vocabulary, and with the availability of on-line dictionaries, this task becomes even easier.  “The major benefit of using e-mail as a language learning activity is the fact that the students are using meaningful language and authentic text.” (Ybarra, 2003).  
Adult learners
	Most beginning reading texts contain very primary content.  For older readers, CALL systems can increase interest level, while still maintaining simple text (Ybarra, 2003).  However, it is important to note that most of the CALL systems developed are not designed specifically for the adult learner.  It would be advisable to preview the software and the directions before subjecting adult learners to a program that may be too juvenile.  There are programs that are editable, which could be adapted for use with older students (Huss, 1990).
Conclusion
This research field is ripe with possibility for further exploration.  One of the most interesting areas in need of further research is that of intelligent computer-assisted language learning systems.  These CALL systems incorporate the use of artificial intelligence and are termed iCALL.   Some examples include: expert systems, intelligent tutoring systems, user modeling and adaptivity, natural language processing, automated speech recognition and machine translation.
I’ve learned a great deal about implementing CALL systems into an ESL classroom.  I am not certain that my project can live up to the high standards set forth herein.  However, it has been an interesting project and I have learned a lot.

References
Alberta Vocational College – Calgary (1996), Computer Assisted Reading Instruction Project Evaluation Report.  Retrieved May 2, 2003, from The National Adult Literacy Database web site http://www.nald.ca/fulltext/accctech/discuss1.htm
Alberta Vocational College – Calgary (1996), Computer Assisted Reading Instruction Project Technical Report.  Retrieved May 2, 2003, from The National Adult Literacy Database web site http://www.nald.ca/fulltext/accceval/results.htm
Baker, W., Hale, T., & Gifford, B.R. ((1997).  From theory to implementation: The mediated learning approach to computer-mediated instruction, learning and assessment. Educom Review, 32 (5) 
Dalgish, G. M. (1985) Computer-assisted ESL research and courseware development.  Computers and Composition, 2 (4), 45-62.
Gamper, J. & Knapp, J. (2002) A review of intelligent CALL systems.  Computer Assisted Language Learning, 15 (4), 329-342.
Geres, K. (2000) The cultural approach to designing computer-assisted instruction for ESL. (On-line) Retrieved May 3, 2003, from http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/Geres
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Jonassen, D.H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophical paradigm? Educational Technology Research and Development, 39(3), 5-14.
Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2000). Models of teaching. (6th Ed). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Kafai, Y. & Resnick, M. (Ed). (1996). Constructionism in practice: Designing, thinking and learning in a digital world. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Kang, S.H. & Dennis, J.R. (1995).  The effects of computers-enhanced vocabulary lessons on achievement of ESL grade school children. Computers in the School, 11(3), 25-35.
Kitao, K. (1993). Individualising English instruction using computers *1. Retrieved May 2, 2003, from Lancaster University, Department of Linguistics and Modern Linguistics and Modern English Language web site: http://www.lling.lancs.ac.uk/staff/visitors/kenji/kitao/computer.htm
Kitao, K. (1994). Introduction to CAI English Classes. Retrieved May 2, 2003, from Lancaster University, Department of Linguistics and Modern Linguistics and Modern English Language web site: http://www.lling.lancs.ac.uk/staff/visitors/kenji/kitao/instruct.htm
Sandholtz J H., Ringstaff, C. & Dwyer, S.C., (1997). Teaching with technology: Creating student-centered classrooms.  New York: Teachers College Press.
Schunk, D. (2000). Learning theories: An educational perspective (3rd Ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Tapscott, D. (1998).  Growing up digital: The rise of the net generation. New York: McGraw-Hill.
What is Constructivism?  Retrieved June 2, 2003, from http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/lindavr/lindapg1.htm
Ybarra, R. & Green, T. (2003, March). Using technology to help ESL/EFL students develop language skills.  The Internet TESL Journal, IX (3).