ENG 121: Old English and Some History
September 15, 1997
Sept 15, 1997
ENG 121: Story of English: Old English
1. Return quizzes and discuss: grading and how to study
2. QUIZ #2 this coming Friday
3. Some finishing up on Germanic
a. A key is the changes in vowels and consonants in Germanic from PIE.
k - h (unicorn - horn)
d - t (deka - ten)
t - th (tres - three)
b. A second key is the typical stress on first syllable of words: This
led to later weakening of inflectional systems
bheronom - beranan - beran (OE) - bere
ber - bear
c. A third key is the development of regular, weak, verb inflection
invite, consider, start, plan, invoke, etc.
d. A simplification of the PIE inflectional system
4. Today: Some first main points on the language of Old English, its rise
from Anglo-Saxon, and then just 900 years of history of Britain (from
55 BC to 875 AD).
a. Anglo-Saxon and Celtic languages: The Anglo-Saxons were eventually
dominant over much of England and there are few traces left of
Celtic in Old English; some rivers, town names, and
geographical features.
b. The transition from Anglo-Saxon to OE: Many related Germanic
dialects; by 650-700 AD, these dialects are becoming more
removed from continental Germanic dialects. The transition to
OE as a distinct language was assisted by christian conversion
and recognition by Rome in 597, by Celtic christian
missionaries writing in English from 600-800, by united
kingdoms centralizing the language from 650 AD, by English
writing appearing after 650 AD. After 850, the Wessex kings
promoted education and English literacy.
c. The sounds of OE: The Pronunciation of Old English.
1. Old English had 7 long and short vowels [a, e ,i, o,
u, y, e]. Only the [y] is lost (high front rounded vowel).
See chart on page 108 for pronunciation--pretty close to present
day English, except that the British English has introduced
more diphthongs since then. In some ways the Old English
pronunciation was closer to American English than British
English today.
2. There were four Old English diphthongs: [ea, eo, io, ie],
and they could all be either long or short forms.
3. In Old English, there were long consonants, written out
with doubled consonant letters (different from modern doubled
consonant indicators). Most consonants are the same in Old
English as in modern English. Some differences are the [ks]
and [hs] forms; [f] stood for both [f] and [v]. For example
wulf - wulfas, seofon - seven, [s] stood for both [s] and [z].
For example nosu - nose; [th], as 0, stood for both voiceless
and voiced forms. The transition from Old English modern
English separated the two sounds into two separate phonemes
from each Old English phoneme: [f], [s], [th]. (109-110)
4. Other consonant differences in Old English: [k] was
typically written as 'c'; the fronted version, before a front
vowel, eventually became a [ch] sound. A good example is kin
and chin as part of the process of creating two phonemes from
[k] by the end of Old English. The [i] vs. [y] distinction
became lost but the 'k' consonant pronunciation stayed: and
the only remaining difference was [ch] vs. [k], so an allophone
difference became a phoneme difference (page 110-111).
Further, the [k] (written 'c'), when followed by [s], created
the [sh] phoneme by end of OE; for example, scip - ship.
5. the [g] sound became two phonemes also: it initially could
be used for both [y] and [g] (gear - year; ges - geese). The
[g] lost its [y] use eventually, but it then was used for both
[g] and [w]. The change occurred when [g] became fricative
between vowels rather than full stop (fugol - fowl, lagu - law)
(page 111).
6. finally we have changes with [n] (n vs. n], [h] [h vs. x],
and [r] (more pronounced). Note that when you read OE, every
letter should be pronounced! More on Wednesday. (112-113)
7. i-umlaut, or front mutation: When suffix had front vowel,
the preceeding vowel of the stem became a front vowel to match
(vowel harmony). This change was commonly caused by plural
endings, by third person inflection on verbs, by some
denominative (a deal, to deal)and causative verb (broaden,
widen) formation endings. This change is seen with dole vs.
deal, foot vs. feet, fox vs. vixen, etc.
[dal] vs [daelan] with [jan] suffix (weak vb form)
[musiz] vs. [mus] (mice vs mouse) (113-115)
Other umlaut (mutation) changes in OE (MAJOR DIFF FROM
GERMANIC)
strong/strength, mouse/mice, full/fill, gold/gild, long/length,
foot/feet, goose/geese, blood/bleed, tooth/teeth, tale/tell,
man/men, food/feed, hale/heal, foul/filth, doom/deem,
broad/spread, slay/slew, (whole/heal), older/elder,
louse/lice, knot/knit, : (not verb gradation here).
For Wednesday, the following langauge areas:
d. The structure of OE
e. The vocabulary of OE
f. The differences of OE from Germanic
The History at the Time of Old English (and before)
First contact between Celts and other groups. Caeser invades Britain in both
55 and 54 BC. He conquered locally, he saw, and he left. Next Roman invasion
was in 43 AD. Romans founded London around 50 AD. By 60 AD, much of England
was under Roman rule. In 61 AD, the great british uprising of the Iceni and
Trinovantes occurred, led by the great Celtic queen, Boudicea. When her father
died, the Roman centurions plundered the Iceni kingdom, whipped Boudicea
publicly, and raped her two daughters. In revenge, the Iceni under Boudicea
attacked and killed all the inhabitants of Colchester, London, and St Albans,
perhaps well over 100,000 people. They also slaughtered one of the four Roman
legions stationed in Britain. Two legions later met the Iceni in the midlands
in the decisive battle and the Romans won. If the Romans had lost this battle,
who knows what language we would all be speaking now. But the Romans won,
the Iceni were slaughtered, and Boudacia comitted suicide. By 70 AD, England
was a controlled Roman province. By 85 AD, Romans had advanced far to the
north, and began controlling lowland Scotland.
The Romans ruled for almost 400 years (43 AD to 410 AD), and the government
asted until 449 AD. Roman rule was civilized and quality of life was among
the highest throughout the Roman empire. Schooling and christianity were
introduced and developed by 400-449. After Roman suport was withdrawn after
410 AD, northern tribes penetrated into England. Celto-Romans asked for help
from Angles and Saxons.
The Germanic groups landed in England in 449 AD (though many were probably in
Britain before 449 as traders and mercenaries). Angles, Saxons, and Jutes:
These three groups came from what is now northern Netherlands, Germany, and
Denmark. There may also have been Frisians. The Saxons went to Northumbria
and to Wessex; The Jutes went to Sussex/Kent and Wessex; the Angles went to
Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. In any case, the three groups were quite
similar to each other and they blended their cultures and languages.
For one hundred years (to 550 AD) there was a gradual penetration of Germanic
people into England, gradually displacing, ruling, and living with the Celtic
inhabitants. There was a long struggle with the Celto-Roman population during
this time.
At the end of the 5th century, 490-500ish AD, we have a Celto-Roman king who
stopped Germanic progress for 50 years, 500 to 550 AD. His name was a version
of Arthur, and he may be the historical version of the legendary king. There
does appear to have been a series of 12 battles, ending with the battle of
Badon around 496-500 AD. We actually know little about him.
After 550 AD the Anglo-Saxons spread continually so that by 600 AD, much of
England was under one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. By 600 AD, christianity
also begins its spread beyond the British-Celtic populations. From 550-600 AD,
the East Anglia kingdom was dominant.
Battles continued between British (Celts) and Anglo-Saxon through 650 (and
lesser battles even up to 800 [Cornwall and Wales]). By 600 AD, the kingdoms
of Northumbria and Mercia gain in power, with dominance gained by Northumbria
by 650 AD. Since the Northumbrian king was christian, and other kingdoms
declared loyalty to Northumbria, much of the island was under the rule of a
single English king; this type of dominance by a single English king continued
through to about 830 AD.
By around 700 AD, the various settlements grouped clearly into seven kingdoms:
Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex, Kent, Wessex. Also by 700 AD
events led to the rise of Mercia. From 730 to 820 AD, Mercia takes primacy.
King Offa of Mercia (around 780-820 AD) was considered a great king, was
well-known on the continent, and considered important by Charlemagne.
Around 790, Viking raids begin, particularly in the Northeast, Northwest,
West (by Wales), and East. By 820, the Vikings raiders had eroded the power
of the northern and eastern kingdoms. These events gave rise to the Wessex
kingdom after 820 AD. Vikings come in large waves beginning in 860 and
conquered all the English kingdoms except Wessex by 875 AD. The stage is now
set for Alfred the Great (847-899 AD).
It should be noted that the increasing Viking dominance over the seas around
England probably cut off the Angles and Saxons from their continental homeland.
The loss of sea power by the Angles, Saxons, and Frisians was most likely due
to the pressure from the Charlemagne and the Franks who broke the Saxon power
on the continent. This loosening of the link back to the continent may have
explained why English moved away from German and Dutch. Without the Vikings,
and maybe Charlemagne, we might all be Dutch speakers! Certainly without the
Norman invasion of 1066, we might also be Dutch speakers (or Frisian) of a
sort.