Academic Success of High School Graduates and Non-High School Graduates in a California Community College

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The United States Department of Education has established regulations preventing institutions from awarding financial aid to students who do not possess a high school diploma, the recognized equivalent, or have passed a federally approved "Ability to Benefit" test. In order to pass an "Ability to Benefit" test, the results must be, at minimum, one standard deviation below the mean of high school graduates. The assumption of this regulation is that students who do meet these criteria are not capable of succeeding or benefiting from a post-secondary program. The desire to pursue this study was inspired by the researcher's experience with a multitude of non-high school graduates in pursuit of a college degree.

The time has long passed since the acquisition of a high school diploma all but guaranteed a good job and a medium income. Employment in careers requiring only a minimum education has declined significantly in recent years, while employment in professional, business, and financial services requiring higher levels of education has increased during the same period. According to Hepburn and White, 1990, the increased risk of unemployment that less educated workers face today comes at a time when America faces large-scale shortages in its labor growth increment in many decades. The new climate of economic competitiveness has not only pitted the United States against other nations, but also state against state. Competitiveness has given a new value to schooling, and educated populations now counted as "resources", like water and soil.

The common place practice of not allowing individuals who have previously dropped out of high school, and who perhaps are in need of remediation, into the doors of higher education to pursue a "second chance" of becoming productive members of our society may be adding to the social problems our society has had to bear. Since the 1930's, public policy has made available to economically distressed families a growing array of benefits, including social security, unemployment insurance benefits, public assistance, and health and social services. Economic interdependence and social integration mean the nation can no longer afford to have a large population of individuals dependent on public assistance.

In many states, individuals are admitted to college programs without the need of a high school diploma; however, these students could be denied financial assistance to pursue such programs if they are not able to pass a federally approved "Ability to Benefit" test. While some researchers argue that many students who experience financial difficulties manage to endure (Hackman & Dysinger, 1970; Tinto, 1987), others point out that financial difficulties is one of the most frequently cited reasons students give for dropping out of college, (Pentages & Creedon, 1978; Martin, 1985). Particularly for low income students, financial problems may be central to their decision regarding continuance. The availability of grants appear to be significantly related to student persistence. Students who received grants in their first year of study were more likely to remain enrolled than students without grants, according to 1981 data (Porter, 1990). Specifically, 90% of students who received a grant during the first year of college were still enrolled in the second semester. In contrast, the persistence rate for students without grants was approximately 75% (Porter, 1990).

A Rand Corportation study headed by Haggstrom (1991) was developed to profile high school graduating classes and determine key factors that affect the post-secondary sorting-out process in the 1980's, paying special attention to the flows of high school graduates into and out of post-secondary educational activities and military service. According to estimates for 1986, the high school graduation rate was 73 percent (71% males, 76% females), implying that 27 percent of the 18 year olds in 1986 had already dropped out of school or would do so before graduation.

Previous research has focused on academic factors such as high school grades and/or entrance exam scores. There is a dearth of studies, however, examining psychological processes as predictors of students' participation and satisfaction, which are both indices of college success (Livengood, 1992).

Academic self-concept, rather than the traditional cognitive skills, was a significant predictor of academic success among minority and low-income students in programs of engineering technology (Geradi, 1990). The research in this area suggests that individuals interpret and judge their achievement and abilities in ways congruent with prior self-conceptions, active searching for self-confirming feedback and often resisting feedback inconsistent with the self-perceptions.

Touhey and Villamez, (1980) indicated that high-need achievers perceived their abilities as high when a successful task required a lot of effort. In contrast, low-need achievers perceived their abilities as high when a successful task required less effort. There is evidence that attitudinal and motivational variables are highly correlated to the academic success of all students; for minority students, however, these variables are salient.

The model developed by Tinto (1975) is probably the most widely tested. Tinto's model emphasizes integration and commitment: students' background characteristics (family, background, individual attributes, and pre-college schooling) interact and influence students' initial commitment to the goal of commitment) and initial commitment to the institution (institutional commitment). These commitments influence students' intellectual development and academic performance, which determines academic integration. Increased academic integration and social integration lead to greater goal commitment and institutional commitment, which reduce the probability of the student dropping out.

Many colleges have taken an active role in aiding the students who may one day attend their institutions. Minority college-going rates are continuing to slump, and many colleges are finding they are unable to find enough qualified minority and disadvantaged students to fill their classrooms. The reason is that many students never even make it to the point where college is considered an option. "Their vision of how far they can reach is so limited that it doesn't encompass college." They haven't prepared for college because no one has said, "You too can do it." The participation of colleges is crucial to encourage students to believe they can continue their education. The problem is the general perception among disadvantaged students that college is a far-off place (Hirschorn, 1987).

The problem of under-prepared college students has worsened in recent years. Community colleges, in particular, have been affected. Individual states that have in recent years adopted the requirements of minimum skills tests for graduates of degree-seeking institutions in the area of reading, writing, and mathematics skills, such as the Texas Academic Skills Program, have underscored the urgency of the situation (Thorton, 1991). The literature has often referred to the impact of personality variables on student writing, but due to the absence of a suitable paradigm of theory to provide conceptual structure, little progress has been made.

Within the last several years, exclusive use of norm referenced tests for admission and placement has been criticized for two reasons: First, standardized normative tests do not reflect current knowledge about cognition, intellectual development and reading process. These tests tend to assess the product of prior learning, rather than the processes needed for success in college, such as thinking and problem solving (Haywood, Brown, & Wigenfeld, 1990). Second, normative tests are based on the assumption that all students have had an equal opportunity to learn. Institutions that depend heavily on standardized test scores and grade point averages may not be fully predicting students' ability to perform successfully in an institution of higher learning (McWhorter & Nist, 1991). One alternative to the single measurement tradition is the use of dynamic assessment (Haywood, et.al., 1990). Dynamic assessment focuses on whether a student can learn instead of on a measurement of current knowledge. Portfolios of student work reflecting their learning process and indicating their affective and cognitive strengths and weaknesses could also serve as a type of dynamic assessment. Under the best conditions, the use of dynamic assessment would allow for much more knowledge about a student's ability and attitudes.

The issue of students' academic potential to succeed in a college program is rarely questioned in California community colleges unless the individual is applying for financial assistance. The mission of California Community Colleges is to provide equal access to all students in pursuit of higher education. Given this "open door policy," these institutions have traditionally admitted all students regardless of graduation from high school or possession of a high school equivalency; i.e., General Education Development certificate.

In contrast to this mission are the federal government requirements in Title IV financial aid programs that strictly limit federal funds to students who have a high school diploma, the recognized equivalent, or who have passed a federally approved "Ability to Benefit" test. These approved tests have traditionally been placement instruments published by several testing companies. Since these instruments are specifically designed to assist in the placement of students in English reading or writing, or in math courses, it is the opinion of this researcher that to utilize these "tests" for the purpose of determining academic ability to succeed in college is an inappropriate use of these instruments.

The decision that a single score on a placement instrument should determine whether or not a student is capable of benefiting form a college experience could be challenged for the protection of student rights to equal access to higher education. The established "cut score" of one standard deviation below the mean of high school graduates as the appropriate point of reference in determining who is and who is not capable of benefiting from a college experience might also be logically challenged.

This study has attempted to identify and explain variables associated with academic success in a college setting. Explanatory research can serve to explain the forces causing the phenomenon in question and to identify plausible casual networks shaping the phenomenon (Marshall and Rossman, 1989). It is anticipated that the identification of these variables will lead to a better understanding of students' needs and provide for the development of enhanced student services to assist more students than are currently served in their academic endeavors.

This study was designed to compare the success of college students who graduated from high school with college students who have not graduated from high school, and to identify and compare factors of success for each. The measure of success in this study was determined by examining the academic progress (defined as cumulative grade point average through periods of enrollment), persistence, and retention rates of the subjects in this study.

The study was guided by the following research questions:

1. What are the specific frequencies, percentages, and other descriptive statistics between high school graduates and non-high school graduates based on the following demographic variables:

a. age;

b. beliefs;

c. employment status while attending college;

d. ethnicity;

e. family structure;

f. financial aid status;

g. first generation college status;

h. gender;

i. primary language

2. What are the specific frequencies, percentages, and other descriptive statistics between high school graduates and non-high school graduates based on the following variables:

a. cumulative grade point average;

b. persistence;

c. retention (within term)

3. Will there be a difference between high school graduates and non-high school graduates based on cumulative grade point average?

For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined in order to facilitate valid interpretations within the context of this study.

Academic Progress. Students who complete at least fifty-one percent of the units attempted and obtain a grade point average of at least a 2.00 (grade of C) in a designated term are considered to be making academic progress.

Completion of Program. The successful completion of a program of study leading to the awarding of the associate of arts or associate of science degree, the awarding of a vocational certificate, and/or certification of general education requirements for transfer to a four-year college or university.

Cumulative. The adding together of term information among semesters or quarters of attendance such as total number of units completed or overall grade point average considering all currently and previously completed terms.

Dependency status. For the purpose of this study, the subject's dependency status, (dependent or independent), shall be defined by title IV federal financial aid regulations. Independent students must be at least 24 years of age, a veteran of the armed forces, an orphan or ward of the court until age 18, have legal dependents other than a spouse, be legally married, or be a graduate student. All other students are declared dependent unless the financial aid administrator, using professional judgment, declares the student independent due to an adverse home situation.

English Proficiency. Determined by the level of English in which the student is currently enrolled. The levels are categorized as developmental (ESL), pre-collegiate (remedial), or collegiate (degree-applicable).

Family Structure. The type of household in which the student lives (traditional two-parent household, one-parent household, extended family, single child, or multiple children).

Financial Aid. Direct federal or state student aid awarded to students meeting the eligibility criteria for the purpose meeting educational cost associated with attendance at a post-secondary institution.

First Generation College Student. Students who are the first in their family (current and previous generations) to have attended college, leading to the completion of a baccalaureate degree or its equivalent.

General Education Development Test (GED). A national high school equivalency test recognized by the Department of Education as meeting the definition of a high school diploma equivalency for the purposes of "Ability to Benefit."

High School Graduate. A student who has successfully completed a secondary program and has received a diploma of graduation. For the purpose of this study, high school graduates include students who have a General Education Development Test (GED) certificate and students who have completed "Preparatoria" in Mexico. The Preparatoria has been defined as the equivalence to a U.S. high school diploma for the purposes of Title IV federal financial aid by the United States Department of Education.

Non-High School Graduate. A student who has not completed secondary school (high school) and does not have a high school equivalency such as a GED.

Life Stressors. Any stressful situation which may impact positively or negatively on the students' academic performance in college.

Persistence. The re-enrollment in a term after the completion in the preceding term. For the purpose of this study, persistence will be measured on a continuous enrollment scale, that is, students will be considered persisting if no break in enrollment takes place within their tenure at the institution.

Program of Study. A designated major or certificate program declared by a student and leading to the awarding of an associate of arts or associate of science degree or certificate.

Recognized Equivalent to a High School Diploma. Students in possession of a GED, California High School Proficiency Examination certificate, diploma from an Adult Education Program, or a diploma from a foreign country equivalent to a U.S. high school diploma are considered as having the recognized equivalent to a high school diploma from the United States.

Retention. The completion of at least one course in a designated term of enrollment.

Socio-Economic Status (SES). For the purpose of this study the family income levels used to determine socio-economic status shall be taken from the California Community College Chancellor's Office Board of Governors Waiver income eligibility table.

Term. The period of time required for the completion of a prescribed number of units. For the purposes of this study term shall be defined as a designated semester.

Unit Load. The number of units in which a student enrolls during a given term.

This research study was limited to high school graduates and non-high school graduates at Imperial Valley College. The generalizability of this study was limited to full-time students attending Imperial Valley College at Imperial, California during the Fall, 1994 semester. Certain external forces such as the current affirmative action climate in the State of California and Imperial Valley College's close proximity to the Mexican border (13 miles to the south) may have affected the results of this study.

Much of the demographic data obtained on the subjects in this study were obtained from Imperial Valley College's computer information system. Since the majority of the information is self-reported by the student and not verified by the college, a threat to internal validity may exist. In addition, some of the demographic information may be changed by the student in any subsequent semester by the use of an updated student application for registration.

Other areas this researcher believes may threaten the internal validity of this study include the variation in student attendance, student and instructor relations, the level of difficulty of courses, the number of difficult courses taken in a given term, differences in the learning styles of students, various instructor methodologies, and support courses students enrolled in.

Certain intervening variables that cannot be directly measured or observed are perceptions, motivations, needs, self-esteem, and feelings (Isaac & Michael, 1995); however, through the use of well-constructed survey and focused group interviews, the researcher was able to identify these variables within the constructs of this study.

Due to the large population of hispanics in Imperial County and the close proximity to the Mexican border (13 miles south of Imperial Valley College), English is not the native language for a majority of the students enrolled at Imperial Valley College. In fact, many of the randomly selected students in this study were enrolled in the English as a Second language Program. It is for this reason that the survey instrument was developed in both English and Spanish. An official Certified Spanish Translator was contracted to translate the survey into Spanish in order to reduce a potential threat to the internal validity of this study. In addition, the focused group interviews was conducted in both English and Spanish to ensure that all participants had the opportunity to engage in and be part of this process, thus further reducing the treat to internal validity.

The interview process was observed by an objective community college counselor who provided feedback to this researcher on the interviews themselves. In addition, this counselor will also provided feedback to the transcription of the interviews in order to reduce other potential threats to internal validity, which the researcher may not have observed directly.

Persistence and retention was measured within the total enrollment period since students were selected based on enrollment during a specific term (Fall, 1994). This was necessary to ensure that the selection of high school graduates and non-high school graduates was not limited to first-time freshman enrolled in the Fall of 1994. Otherwise, continuous variables could not be accounted for in this study. For this reason, students were considered to be successfully persisting in their program of study if they re-enroll in a contiguous semester within their tenure at the institution. Students were considered retained if they did not dropout during any term of enrollment during their tenure at the institution.

The results of this study will be disseminated to financial aid administrators both in California and across the nation through several financial aid administrators associations. The California Community College Student Financial Aid Administrators Association (CCCSFAAA) represents all 107 community colleges in the State. This issue is especially crucial to this group due to the fact that the California Education Code requires all community colleges in the State to admit all students eighteen years of age and older in pursuit of a post-secondary education. The California Association of Student Financial Aid Administrators (CASFAA) represents not only the California community colleges, but the University of California, the California State University, and the private and independent college systems as well. The Western Association of Student Financial Aid Administrators (WASFAA) represents all institutions of higher education in the Western United States. Finally, the National Association of Student Financial Aid Administrators (NASFAA) represents all institutions of higher education in the United States.

As a member of these associations, this researcher plans to present the findings of this study to these groups and recruit their assistance in providing Congressional input for technical amendments to the current law affecting student eligibility of non-high school graduates. It is anticipated that recommendations to the United States Department of Education will be made for the use of multiple measures to assess academic ability for students who do not possess a high school diploma rather than a single "cut score" on an inappropriate assessment instrument.

The issue of "Ability to Benefit" is of equal access for all students in the pursuit of higher education. It has been the experience of this researcher that these associations have been instrumental in successfully lobbying Congress in order to provide for this equal access to higher education for all students. In 1989, when the Higher Education Act of 1965 was re-authorized by Congress, the "Ability to Benefit" law affected not only student eligibility but also institutional eligibility. Institutional eligibility meant that all students admitted into any program at the institution must have a high school diploma, the recognized equivalent, or have passed an approved "Ability to Benefit" test. if any student, even one who had not applied for financial assistance, was admitted to a program without meeting these provisions of the law, then that program would not be considered eligible for financial aid purposes (financial aid students could not receive financial aid for any course required in that program). The California Community College Chancellor's Office, in conjunction with both California associations (CCCSFAA and CASFAA), filed an injunction against the Department of Education in Federal District Court. The result of this injunction was the amendment of the provisions in the law affecting institutional eligibility. The law now only requires individual students to meet the provisions of the "Ability to Benefit" law before any financial aid funds could be awarded and dispersed.

It is this researcher's contention that college success involves a multitude of factors. These factors are not limited to students who did not graduate from high school before commencing their college careers. This study compared college success of both high school graduates and non-high school graduates and identified the factors which may contribute to college success.

In the following chapter, this researcher provided a review of the literature on known attributes leading to the successful completion of a college program of study. Variables which appear to adversely affect achievement were explored through literature reviews. The literature review serves various purposes of the study. The literature review provides a historical background of the theory and practice associated with college success. Second, a critique of previous research in this field was pursued. Third, the contribution this study could make to the existing literature was explored and identified. Finally, recommendations for further studies were made based on the outcome of this line of inquiry.